SECTION 9: Painting Movements - Pittura (2025)

The criteria by which artists should be categorised were discussed by Count Athanasius von Raczynski as long ago as 1836. He argued that painters do not constitute a School unless they have common characteristics See Painting, Schools of in Section 5. The problem of placing painters into useful & meaningful categories, & the approach which has been adopted, is discussed in the Preface.

In order to qualify as belonging to one of the Movements that are identified in this Section painters must satisfy a set of common characteristics that are shared by a considerable number artists from a particular period. These characteristics include some of the following features: the style of painting, the technique adopted, the form of composition, the predominant colours that are used, the type of genre, & the artists’ major preoccupations both positive & negative.

List/Index:

The Aesthetic Movement, 1850-1917

Baroque Painting

The Borrowers

Byzantine Painting

Classicism in the Baroque Era

Eloquent Painting in Spain, 1600-50

Fantasy

French Academic Painting, 1648, 1754

The Great Tradition, 1889-1950

The High Renaissance

Impressionism, Canadian

Impressionism, French : The Landscape Movement

Impressionism, German

Impressionism, Russian Empire

Impressionism, USA

Looking Backwards, 1860-1926

Magic Realism

Mannerism

Modern Life Painting in the Victorian Era

National Romanticism

National Socialist Painting

The Nazareenes et al

Neoclassicism

et al

Neo-Romanticism

Northern Realism

The Northern Renaissance

Political-Art/Tendenzkunst

Post-Cubism

Realism 18th Century Narrative, etc

Realism from 1945

Renaissance, Early Italian

Renaissance, International Gothic

Romantic Classical Realism

Romanticism: Melodramatic

Romanticism: Naturalistic

Romantic: Picturesque

Rural Naturalism

The Russian Avant-Garde

Russian Critical Realism

Social Realism 1910-1960 – spell done

Soviet Impressionism

Soviet Socialist Realism

Surrealism

Symbolism

MOVEMENTS SUMARISED. They are in approximate date order

ABSTRACTION: GEOMETRIC, LINEAR & OBJECTIVE (45) (Short title in Section 1: Geometric Abstraction)

Term: A geometric abstract tendency has been long recognised, among others by Alfred Barr (1936 MoMA exhibition) & Sir Herbert Read Aronson p105, Read1959 pp 188-96. Moreover the term geometric abstraction is widely used, eg TurnerEtoPM pp 3-4. [However, geometric abstraction & related painting is not customarily treated as a separate movement or a subject in its own right.

Development: In 1910 the Supremacist (Last Futurist or 0.10) exhibition was held at St Petersburg with 39 paintings by Malevich & those of other radicals. It featured Malevich’s Black Square, a white bordered black square, which was placed at a high point in the Orthodox icon position, indicating that abstract art was sacred Aronson pp 70-2. In 1915 his booklet From Cubism & Futurism to Suprematism appeared & in 1918 Corbusier & Ozenfant’s Apres le Cubism TurnerEtoPM pp 371, 324. After 1945 geometric abstraction was shown widely at a series of exhibitions in Paris. However, after the traumas of the War many artists found geometric painting inadequate & turned to Abstract Expressionism, Art Informal & Tachism etc. However this did not mean that geometric works ceased to be paintedTurnerEtoPM pp 7-9.

Groupings: [There were a number of different groups that produced work of a gemometric type, viz]

(a) Russian Suprematism, a term coined by Malevich in 1915 which meant the supremacy of this new art over previous workTurnerEtoPM p371.
(b) De Stijl (the style). This was a Dutch journal, & a subsequent movement, founded by van Doesburg in 1917 for which Mondrian wrote the bulk of the early issues TurnerEtoPM p365. In 1919 Mondrian coined Neo-plasticism as an alternative designation TurnerEtoPM p262.
(c) Purism which was a movement up to 1925 initiated by Ozenfant & Corbusier TurnerEtoPM p224.
(d) Concrete Art was a term coined van Doesburg in 1930 TurnerEtoPM p107.
(e) Abstraction-Creation, 1931-6, which included Helion, Herbin & Vantongerloo TurnerEtoPM p23.
(f) American Abstract Artists group, 1936 to about 1942, which included Balcomb Greene TurnerEtoPM p30.
(g) Les Plasticiens in Canada, 1955-9, to which Juaran belonged OxDicMod, TurnerEtoPM p312.
(h) Various other groups (Groupe Espace, Movemento Arte Concreta, Art Abstract) were more or less geometric abstractionist TurnerEtoPM pp 9, 41, 256. Barnett Newman must also be included because his stripe paintings are virtually geometric Anfam pp 40, 42-3, 174, 194-5, 206, 272-3

Characteristics:

(a) Geometric works are linear being composed of lines &/or blocks of paint. These blocks & lines typically form rectangles. Horizontal cum vertical construction was inspired by the belief that art should induce a feeling of mathematical order. This was a belief shared by the adherents of Supremacism, De Stijl & Neo-plasticism, Purism, & most Abstract-Creation painters & American Abstract painters. It was argued by Corbusier that the right angle, alone among angles. is unique & hence superior & obligatory because man must have constantsTurnerEtoPM pp 23, 30, 312, 324-5, 365, OxDicMod, Hughes1991 p187. [Other possible features included unmodulated & untextured paintwork; colours that were usually bright & restricted to the primaries & white & black
(b) Bizarre philosophies were a feature of those who advocated Geometric Abstraction. They included Mondrian’s belief in the orthogonal’s mystical significance & Malevich’s belief in escaping into a new space-continuum/fourth dimension through Abstract art. El Lissitzky held that Suprematism was a new world issuing from our inner being. Arp & Taeuber thought their joint collages would be non-egoistic & calming becuse of their impersonal techniques & geometric rigour TurnerEtoPM, Aronson p72. For Ben Nicholson abstract art was a search for & realisation of infinity. He believed that space, time & the universe itself were the construction of the human mind & beyond scientific investigation. They were only knowable through semi-religious experience Harrison p261. There was a quasi-religious preoccupation with white, viz Malevich’s belief that white was non-objectivity’s final stage where motion must vaporise & white was the truly real incorporation of infinity S&K p62. Corbusier celebrated his White World of clarity & precision in contrast to a Brown World of muddle, clutter & compromise Hughes1991 p191.
(c) Intolerance: Another feature of those who practiced & believed in Geometric Abstraction was their extreme hostility to those who did not share their beliefs. Mondrain has already been mentioned & here are two further examples. Mondrian broke with DeStijl when in the mid-1920s van Doesburg introduced diagonals into his painting; & in 1934 Nicholson successfully purged the 7+5 society of artists who were not sufficiently abstract OxDicMod, See 7+5 in Section 8.

Reactions: Benois, the Russia critic & artist, viewed the 1915 Suprematist Exhibition as a blasphemous replacement of human art by a machine mentality. It was arrogant & haughty & trampled over the all that was dear & tender. Malevich replied that he was happy to proceed into an empty transforming wilderness Aronson pp 74 -5

Verdict: Even Herbert Read thought that, Mondrian apart, the DeStijlians’ work had an arid quality & cited Nieuwenhuis & Vordemberge-Gildewart Read1959 p202. Moreover American abstract art in the 1930s was mainly of a derivative geometric type based on Mondrian, de Stijl & Abstract-Creation Hughes1997 p420

Painters:

(a) Suprematist: Boguslavskaya; Klyun; Malevich; Menkov; Puni; Rozanova TurnerEtoPM p372;
(b) De Stijl: Mondrian; Van Doesburg; Vantongerloo; Vordemberge-Gildewart Read1959 pp 200, 202, TurnerEtoPM p365;
(c) Purists: Le Corbusier, Ozenfant OxDicMod;
(d) Abstraction-Creation: Arp; Bauminster; Calder; Delaunays; Freundlich; Gabo; Gleizes; Gorin; Helion; Herbin; Kupka; Moholy-Nagy; Mondrian; Ben Nicholson; Pevsner; Schwitters; Stazewski; Valmier; Vantongerloo; Villon; Wadsworth TurnerEtoPM pp 23-4, Harrison p260;
(e) American Abstract Artists: Albers; Bolowtowsky; De Kooning; Diller; Gallatin; Balcomb Greene; Helion; Holty; Moholy-Nagy; Krasner; Mondrian; George Morris, Reinhardt; David Smith TurnerEtoPM pp 30-31, Lane & Larsen pp 38, 199; other contemporary American abstract artists: Biederman, Glarner, von Wiegand Hughes1997 p420, Lane & Larsen p48;
(f) Les Plasticiens: Belzille; Jauran; Jean-Paul Jerome; Leduc; Molinari; Toupin TurnerEtoPM p312

ABSTRACTION: LYRICAL, EXPRESSIVE & PAINTERLY, (46) including Orphism, Synchromism, Simultanism & most Abstract Expressionism, etc: (Short title in Section 1: Painterly Abstraction)

Category: That Abstract Art readily divides into geometric & non-geometric sub-categories has been widely & authoritatively recognised See Abstraction in Section 7 [ It is useful here to distinguish between an early period of non-geometric painting, which embraces Orphism, Synchronism & Simultanism, & a later era in which Abstract Expressionism & Art Informal flourished SeeTurnerEtoPM p7.]

Terms:
(a) Orphism: This was a term coined by Apollinaire in 1912. It was a new kind of joyous & sensuous art of abstract tendency & Cubist origin TurnerEtoPM p289;
(b) Simultanism which was coined by DelaunayTate2013 p84;
(c) Synchromism coined by Macdonald-Wright & Morgan Russell in 1913 L&L

Character/Nature: In contrast to the cool rationalism of geometric abstraction, this form seeks to express emotion & convey the artist’s personal feelings about the world through the act of painting & the use of colour. The paintings are lyrical & painterly with irregular & often ill-defined areas of broken, textured & non-harsh colouring. The colours range from off white & orange to a sombre deep maroon, which for Mark Rothco appears to have indicated his tragic view of the world. They may contain identifiable objects, as in the work of Robert Delaunay, but they are largely non-representational. Form is subservient to the expressive impulses of the artist Hughes1991 pp 39, 41 & 1997 p349, TateL pp 8, 9-10, 26, Tate2013 p84, Grove2 p543. [A feature of this form of abstraction is that concerned as it is with atmosphere & aura there is little more that can be said.]

Painters:

(a) Early Period: Benton (briefly); the Delaunays; Kupka for a period; Macdonald-Wright; Morgan Russel L&L, OxDicMod ,etc

(b) Late Period, American: William Baziotes; Sam Francis; Helen Frankenthaler: Philip Guston: Franz Kline; William de Kooning; Joan Mitchell, Mark Rothco; David Smith; Clyford Still; Mark Tobey; Jack Tworkov Anfam

(c) Late Period, French: Apelle; Atlan; Bezaine; Bissiere; Bryen; Burri; Corneille; Davie; de Stael; Dubuffet; Esteve; Fautrier; Hartung; Jorn; Lapicque; Manessier; Mathieu; Michaux; Riopelle; Soulanges; Wols TurnerEtoPM pp 52-3, 389-90; Everitt.

(d) Late Period, Other Europeans: Cuixart, Millares, Saura & Tapies in Spain; Burri, Corpora & Vedova in Italy; Baumeister, Bissier, Dahmen, Gotz, Emil Schumacher & Theodor Werner in Germany; Alan Davie, Patrick Herron, & William Scott in Britain; & Guiette, Lataster, van Lindt & Jean Milo in the Low Countries TurnerEtoPM p54

ACADEMIC PAINTING: ANCIENT WORLD GENRE & ORIENTALISM ETC FROM 1845 (26) including the Neo-Greeks ( Short title in Section 1 Academic Painting from 1845 )

Concept: Books on art history frequently describe paintings & painters during the second half of the 19^th century as Academic & Salon painting has been accorded monograph treatment in a book subtitled Bourgeois Realism eg Treuherz1993 Ch7, Celebonovic . The classic definition of Realism includes the stipulation that they must depict the contemporary world. However Linda Nochlin, who framed this definition, went on to recognise that there were artists who from the mid-19^th century, such as Gerome & Alma Tadema, who painted historical genre works which only failed to qualify as Realism because they were set in the past. She suggested that these might be termed “genre painting of antiquity” & pointed out that they were not History Painting of the traditional type because they did not paint heroic deeds or lofty subjects Nochlin1971 pp 13, 23-5 . They also as painters of everyday life avoided subject matter drawn from classical & medieval mythologies which were the stock in trade of the Aesthetic Movement See Aesthetic Movement in this Section.

Development: Gerome led the Neo-Greek painters who were active in Paris from about 1845. They lived & worked in a house on the Rue de Fleurus, were championed by their friend Gautier, & painted genre-like Classical scenes of the 5^th century BC. These contained nude & gausily draped maidens & youths who were depicted with photographic realismTurnerRtoI pp 217-8

Characteristics: [These painters were acclaimed in their own day. They usually exhibited numerous works at the RA, the Salon, the St Petersburg Academy etc to which if male they almost always belonged, as indicated below. Their paintings had a high degree of finish.] Where it was not drawn from the Ancient World, the subject matter was religious eg Bouguereau; military eg Lady Butler; involved member of a royal family or high society, vide Winterhalter & Carolus-Duran; Orientalist eg John Frederick Lewis, or it was the female nude, as in numerous Salon paintings during the 1860s & 70s. Especially in the Orientalist works there was a strong element of eroticism, as in Gerome Celebonovic pp 48-9, Grove5 pp 812-3 & 33 pp 256-7, Treuherz1993 pp 119-21, 15, 179, ClarkTJ pp 112-26, Ackerman pp 116, 118, 120-1.

These Academic paintings, unlike those of the latter Pre-Raphaelites, do not appear to mirror the social & sexual tensions of the second half of the 19^th century. They were however the product of their time. For many upper class women It was an era of leisure & it is notable that in many of the Classical scenes show young females involved in time consuming & pleasurable activities such as bathing. Or they are simply doing little or nothing as in paintings by Alma-Tadema, Poynter & John William Godward Ash Pl 9, 11, 15, 19, 32, 39. [Although Academic works are often regarded as dull] these works are gently humorous .

The Academic portrait is very different. Here the sitter is often portrayed as so noble & imposing as to be almost super human, as in Millais; & they sometimes seem to be emerging from the frames into the viewers’ own space, as in portraits of Carolus-Duran R&S pp 205, 209, 211, 213 , L&T pp 16, 34, 77, 85, 87, 95, 103, 105, 109,111, 113, 135, 181, 193 .

A feature of Academic Painting is the distinctive colours & colour combinations that are often employed. For instance in Alma-Tadema, Carolus-Duran & Gerome these include succulent scarlet, maroon, deep orange, & pink. Moreover colours are often placed so as to achieve striking contrasts & brown & other colours are carefully gradated P&T pp 20, 23, 101, 103, Ash Pl 7-8, 13, 15, 18, 26, 29, L&T pp 59, 77, 87, 109, 111, 147, Ackerman pp 29, 34, 54-5, 61, 67, 71, 74-5, 79, 89, 101, 103, 109, 105, 117, 118, 120-1, 123, 129 , 134-6, etc.

Repute: Academic painting was for many years criticised as being dull & conventional. This made the fair appreciation of Academic art difficult. However there has been. as in some many other fields, a welcome re-evaluation of Academic painting since around 1960 Murrays1959 .

Leading Painters:

(a) UK: Alma-Tadema RA; Lady Butler; Philip Hermogenes Calderon RA; John Collier; Luke Fildes RA (portraits & Venetian scenes); John William Godward; Benjamin Leader RA; John Evan Hodgson RA; Edmund Blair Leighton; Edwin Long RA; the later Millais RA; Mrs Ernest Normand; Sir William Orchardson RA, apart from his few modern life subjects; John Pettie RA; Sir Edward Poynter PRA; Val Princep RA; Henrietta Rae; Briton Riviere RA; Walter Dendy Sadler RBA; Solomon Joseph Solomon
RA; Marcus Stone RA; Arthur Wardle Treuhertz pp 161-85; Wood1999 Ch16.
(b) France: Rosa Bonheur, Bonnat; Cabanel; Carolus- Duran; Flandrin; Gerome; Jean-Louis Hamon; Henri-Pierre Picou Turner RtoI p218, etc
(c) Germany: Anton von Werner; Winterhalter
(d) Russian Empire: Henryk Siemiradzki Celebonovic p189
(e) USA: Kenyon Cox; Ella Ferris Pell;Thayer [Do Cox & Thayer, who is anything but down to earth, fit? But if not here where?]

THE AESTHETIC MOVEMENT, 1850-1917 (28)

Concept: Alternative terms have been used to describe this period & grouping, namely High Victorian, Victorian Olympus, Victorian High Renaissance, & Neo-ClassicalMinneapolis Institute of Art p11, Mass Ch 12. None of these are satisfactory: High Victorian is too wide & Victorian High Renaissance suggests pictures that are derivative. The term Aesthetic Movement will be used here & has authoritatively endorsementTreuherz Ch 6, TurnerRtoI p1, Prettejohn1999 p2. Moreover, it was recognised at the time. In 1867 Sidney Colvin identified a band of artists who saw beauty as their pre-eminent aim (Burne-Jones, Hughes, Leighton, Mason, Moore, Rossetti, Solomon, Watts, Whistler)Prettejohn1999 pp 2-3. The Aesthetic Movement also extended to [Germany] & the USA. In the latter it was to be known as Tonalism Turner RtoI p352]

It should be recognised, however, that there is an ambiguity about the term aesthetic. It can be used in either a wide or narrow sense. In its narrow usage it applies to the cult of the beautiful & an emphasis on the sheer pleasure to be derived from it. Such art was painted by Whistler & Albert Moore, & promoted by Pater, Swinburne & Wilde. It is thought to lack any narrative content , significant subject matter, or social purpose. Art is seen as wholly autonomous activity, namely as Art for Art’s Sake TurnerRtoI pp 1, OxDicArt. [In a wider sense aesthetic painting also includes those which have narrative content & significant subject matter].

Location/Period: It stretched from the 1870s in the UK, & later in the USA, [until perhaps] 1917 when Waterhouse exhibited his last picture at the RA TurnerRtoI p1, Wood1999 p241. In 1861 Whistler, [who was to become the leading painter of the Aesthetic Movement], had painted Coast of Brittany which was a Realist work. However, over the course of the decade he moved away from Realism & in 1867 Whistler repudiated Courbet’s realism & said that his influence was disgusting. Another sign of change was Ruskin’s denunciation of commercialism in Unto This Last, published in 1870 SuttonD1963 pp 34-7, Weintraub p123.

Development: [Works of an aesthetic type were in defiance to tidy boundaries being painted even earlier, often individually rather than as part of a general Movement]. Rossetti’s Bocca Baciata of 1859 was a painting of a woman which had no other apparent purpose than to delight the senses. It was followed in 1863 by Leighton’s A Girl with a Basket of Fruit & other paintings of decoratively arranged female models conveying beauty for its own sake. Those by Rosetti were richly coloured & sensual, but others by Leighton, Burne-Jones, Whistler & Albert Moore were characterised by paler colour harmonies & dreamy languor Pretejohn2006 pp 117-9, Treuherz1993 p133. Whistler helped bring the taste for Japanese art from Paris to London & during 1864 he painted pictures of women in kimonos with Japanese accessories. These were followed by women in simple white dresses but which had a Japanese flatness, bold placing & a subordination of detail Treuherz1993 p135. There was a revived interest in the Classical ideal during the 1860s (Moore, Leighton, Burne-Jones, Watts, Puvis de Chavannes). Greek art was now seen as expressing a harmonious & luxurious ideal of beauty in repose. The late 1860s also saw a revival of the full-length nude by Leighton, Moore & Watts. Whistler was the only aesthetic artist who painted contemporary subject matter [but they were mysterious night scenes, & hence not really an exception] Treuherz1993 pp 136-8. In 1877 the Grosvenor Gallery opened with eight works by Burne-Jones’ that publicised the Aesthetic Movement, as did the Whistler trial during the following yearTreuherz1993 pp 150-1. During the 1990s there was a revival of brightly coloured & sharply focused Pre-Raphaelite painting following the retrospective exhibitions of 1886 for Millais & Hunt at the Grosvenor & the Fine Art SocietyTreuherz1993 p154

Characteristics: The cult of beauty is the key feature of the Aesthetic Movement Treuherz1993 p142. Pictures appear at first sight to lack narrative or significant subject matterTurnerRtoI p1. However, Treuherz has argued that the British painters did feel that art needed to have a deeper meaning & that, Whistler apart, they were concerned with profound issues of the human condition, particularly in their latter works. Those of Rossetti, the dominant Pre-Raphaelite of the late 1850s & 60s, are largely concerned with ill-fated passion, cruel or unhappy women, & the contrast between heavenly & earthly loveTreuherz1993 pp 142-4.

Aesthetic paintings are atmospheric & generate a strong sense of mood. The sitters & subjects display a pervasive sadness &/or lasitude, witness Burne-Jones, Leighton, Whistler & Moore Wood1999 p191, Spalding1979 Pls, Minneapolis Institute of Art pp 139-155, Ash1993 Pls. Figures are dressed in long flowing dresses & robes with the women un-corseted & often nude or semi-nude. Female hair is not infrequently loose & long, with the partial exception of Leighton Spalding1979 Pls, Minneapolis Institute of Art pp139-155, Ash1993 Pls. The light in Aesthetic paintings is often, though not always, soft & diffused with muted tones & hazily delaminated subjects. This is the case for Whistler & for American tonism. Paintings by Leighton, Burne-Jones & Waterhouse are more clearly defined & the colour schemes are sophisticated & sumptuous especially those of LeightonTurnerRtoI p352.

Distinctions between different art movements are particularly difficult to draw during the latter 19^th century Wood1999 p234. There is for instance a pervasive eroticism in both Aesthetic Movement & Academic paintings. However, the aesthetic painters seem focused on sex as a frustrated communion of souls, whereas academic painters are often concerned with happy union or simple nudity. Academic works are often dramatic scenes from history or genre histories whereas aesthetic paintings often draw on mythological or literary sources. Hence aesthetic works are full of narrative content, witness Leighton’s many pictures based on Classical mythology indicate & the King Arthur & other story pictures by Burne-Jones. This in turn differentiates aesthetic works from those Symbolist paintings which are the product of imagination & depict a dream world.

Sub-Groups: Leighton was seen as leader of a Classical School & Burne-Jones as his Pre-Raphaelite counterpart. However, not only did both belong to wider an Aesthetic Movement, but they were too inter-related & complimentary to be seen as separate schools Wood1999 p176.

Links: The British painters all knew each other & often shared studio assistants (Leighton, Burne-Jones, Watts). Some were friends (Burne-Jones with Watts & for a time Leighton) MacCarthy pp 193-4, 275, 364-5, 369. The avant-garde Hogarth Club, 1858-61, embraced many artists in Rossetti’ s circle & Leighton was a member. Rosetti exhibited Bocca Baciata at the Club Prettejohn1999 pp 21-22. All the painters apart from Rossetti exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery(1877-90, founded Sir Coutts & Blanche Lindsay to display contemporary art in a handsome & spacious, & not floor to ceiling, settingWood1999 pp 160-1

Personal: [It is notable that most Aesthetic Movement painters seem to have been unhappy due to depression (Burne-Jones), anger (Whistler), unfulfilled ambitions (Leighton, Whistler), sexual relationships that were unsatisfactory because of their nature or apparent absence (Burne-Jones, Moore, Leighton, Simeon Solomon; Waterhouse, Whistler). In contrast Alma Tadema who painted similar but non-aesthetic pictures was a contented man with happy home life See entries for individual artists in Section 1.]

Patrons: Before it became fashionable the Aesthetic Movement was mainly supported by nouveau riche merchants, manufacturers & financiers etc. They included George Rae who was a Birkenhead banker; William Graham, a Glasgow jute manufacturer; & F.R. Leyland, the Liverpool ship ownerTreuherz1993 pp 154-5

Background:

(a) Economic: In Britain the mid-Victorian era, 1851-73, ended with the tremendous boom of 1868-73 when there were rising commodity prices & good profit margins Court p195. However, this was followed by a slump during 1876-78, which was quickly succeeded by another during 1883-7. This gave Victorian optimism a severe shock from which it never fully recovered. In 1876 a Royal Commission was established to inquire into the causes of the depression, a minority report even advocated a protective tariff Ensor pp 111-2, HalevyV pp 288-9; The period 1873-1896 witnessed what came to be known as “the Great Depression” with its impressive decline in prices & depressed trading. Interest rates, profits, & agricultural rents were low & there was much grumbling & discontent among the property-owning & business classes. After 1896 commodity prices started to rise & there was a swift increase after 1905. From 1900 real income stagnated but, with rising agricultural rents, profit & interest rates capital owners now felt better off Court pp 195-7. [Although it would probably be wrong to attribute the pervasive sadness of Aesthetic Movement paintings to the economic malaise, it seems significant that the period was not economically rosy.]

(b) Literature; [Around 1875 novels ceased to have happy endings, witness, for instance, Henry James’ Portrait of a Lady, 1881, & the extreme pessimism of the novels of Hardy & later Conrad. However, the classic example of angst is] the poem by James Thomson, the friend of Rosetti who became an alcoholic. The City of Dreadful Night, 1874, is set in a half-ruined city with its River of Suicides, presided over by the sublime figure of Melancholia, & peopled by tormented shades in a living hell. The poem much influenced the mood of fin de siècle poetic pessimism OxCompLit;

(c) Neurasthenia: It was believed by responsible physicians

& Philosophers, without audible dissent, that there was an outbreak of nervous disorder in the late 19^th century Gay p348. The American George Beard coined the term “neurasthenia” to describe nervous exhaustion & wrote influential books on subject during 1880 & 1881. He though modern nervousness was due to industrial bourgeois society & the strains it imposed, especially on brain workers Gay pp 343-4, 448. There was a general acceptance that nervousness was rising (Dr Wilhelm Erb, Kraft-Ebbing etc & Freud, in his 1908 Civilized Sexual Morality & Modern Nervous Illness, where he regarded nervousness as the price of sexual repression) Gay pp 340, 349-50.

(d) Sexual: Middle class couples who married during the 1850s averaged 6.4 children, but in the 1880s only 3.5 Tosh p156. There was opposition to birth control from the purity crusaders such as the National Vigilance Association, founded in 1886, & also from many advanced women who feared that contraception would turn women into sex objects Searle pp 70-3. In 1877 Charles Bradlaugh & Annie Besant were prosecuted in for obscenity, after advocating birth control in a pamphlet; & in 1886 a doctor was, at the instigation of the Vigilance Association, struck off the medical register for publishing a birth-control manual Banks pp 150-5, Searle pp 73-4. However, the Bradlaugh-Besant trial did serve to publicise birth control. Considerable numbers of condoms & diaphragms were sold, & popular instruction manuals did circulate. Nevertheless, it appears that reduced family size between 1860s & 1920s was mostly due to coitus interruptus & abstinence Tosh p156. Probably no more than 15% of those marrying before 1910 used birth control, [although this would have covered a substantial part of the upper classes] Searle p73. Prostitution was more open than previously in Victorian England: the promenade at the Empire Theatre became an open sexual market place Ensor p340. However, street trafficking had been driven up by the 1885 Criminal Law Amendment Act with its new powers for the closure of brothels Searle p70. [It is therefore by no means certain that prostitution was increasing. In view of the marked decline in the size of the middle-class family, it seems likely that this was accompanied by growing sexual frustration & marital distress. The example of that arch-aesthete Burne-Jones would seem relevant See box entitled The Zambaco Affair

(e) Female Leisure must have increased for upper class women due to reduced child bearing, & also caring due the growth in boarding school education & a change in female attitudes to marriage.] It was no longer motivated in higher social strata by the desire to become wives, mothers, & the mistresses of households but by the wish to become mistresses of themselves. Moreover, they were goaded into marriage by fashionable mother’s sick of having them around Escott pp 508. Female leisure was often filled by voluntary activity etc. In 1893 perhaps 500,000 women worked continuously & semi-professionally in voluntary activities Searle p62. [Nevertheless, it seems likely that many upper-class women increasingly lacked any purposeful activity & that the prone & languorous in aesthetic paintings were to some extent a reflection of reality.]

(f) Female Dress: Bustles were fashionable between 1870 & 1890. Steel & whalebone corsets were worn in order to produce wasp-waists. Blouses & skirts came in from the late 1880s & leg of mutton sleeves during 1890s. However, the sway of fashion was not all powerful. Women in the Morris & Burne-Jones circle wore loose richly coloured dresses, falling in straight lines & merely girdled Ensor pp 168, 337. [It was clothing of this type that appeared in so many paintings by Burne-Jones, Leighton & other aesthetic painters.]

(g) The 1850s were the peak period for belief in enterprise, commerce & Industrialisation; thereafter there was increasing hostility to rampant capitalism, vide Ruskin’s unto This Last, 1862, Arnold’s Culture & Anarchy, 1869; & Trollope’s Way We Live Now, 1875, etc Weiner Ch3 etc. The critic & curator Sidney Colvin bewailed the lack of beauty -a necessary material for art- in modern London necessary in art. Past eras were seen as more attractive with Morris, the foe of rampant industrialism, saying that to achieve beauty the artist must chose an appropriate epoch Trippi pp 13–14.

(h) Yet another development was the growth in hedonism. It was promoted by the Prince of Wales, whose unpopularity ended with his illness of 1871. After this he become & continued to be the leader of London Society. In the eighties he defied the sabbath by giving Sunday evening dinner parties & later promoted week-end house parties Ensor pp 142-3 .

Painters:

(a) Great Britain: Burne-Jones; Draper; Dicksee; Leighton; Moore; Rossetti; Simeon Solomon; Strudwick; John William Waterhouse; Whistler Prettejohn1999 p3, Treuherz1993 Ch6,TurnerRtoI p2; Wood1999 pp 242-3, 245 [If Costa is being included what about the British Etruscans?. Also the later Gotch]

(b) America: Thomas Dewing, George Innes, Edward Steichen, Dwight Tryon TurnerRtoI p352. [What about Thayer, Kenyon Cox??]

(c) Continntal Europe: Bocklin Fuerbach, Marees, Puvis de Chevannes, Fantin-Latour, Govanni Costa Novotny Ch15, Newall 1989 [But does Fantin-Lator really fit]

ANTI-MANNERIST & COUNTER-Reformation Painting (9)

OK Concept, Term, & Historiography: [The works involve are clearly composed & without the bizarre & exaggerated features of preceeding & contemporaneous Mannerist works. The Counter-Reformation formed the historical context within which they were painted. In 1930 Walter Friedlander coined the term Anti-Mannerism. He argued that a seemingly disparate group shared a common hostility to Mannerism & wanted a down-to-earth approach, desiring simplicity & objectivity. Anti-Mannerisim’s features were identified as simplicity not complexity; truth to nature in place of the imaginative; & solid & dedicated work rather than a glib & facile effect Friedlaender1925 pp xvi-xvii, 51, 53-8. There was a “securalisation of the transcendental” with the emphasis switched in paintings of St Paul’s conversion from supernatural visions & miracles to an interior miracle & inward spiritual experience. This was also evident in paintings of the Supper at Emmaus which was a subject that had been neglected by Mannerists Friedlaender1925 pp 70-1, 77. Saints & their visions were humanised because, despite ecstatic rapture, bodily positions remained credible & Saints were depicted as individuals, not cliches Friedlaender1925 pp 73-6. The Anti-Mannerists did not theorise so much in lectures & books Friedlaender1925 p53. Although the term Anti-Mannerism has now been discarded by art historians, its value as a concept is still recognised. Marcia Hall has, like Friedlaender, recognised that there were a group of artists including Frederico Zuccaro who in the aftermath of the Counter-Reformation produced alter ieces that conformed to what was now required. One, the Coronation of the Virgin, was pedestrian & confusing while another Christ Healing the Man Born Blind is clear but, like other paintings soon after the Council of Trent, lucid but lacking emotional appeal. Santi di Tito produced works that were very similar to the latter painting, although there was a brief period when they were enlivened with colour & light. Girolamo Muziano was another artist who produced lucid & legible works HallM1999 pxii & 2011 pp 129-33, Friedlaender p51. Chimenti da Empoli, Jacopo Ligozzi, Domenico Alessandro Allori, Andrea Boscoli, Francesco Curradi, Jacopo Passignano, Lodovico Cigoli, Bernardino Poccetti, Santi Di Tito, Michele Tosini, & the Venetian Francesco Bassano NGArt1986 p238, Bailey p35, Hall1999 p252, Freedberg pp 431-5 [Need to check which need to be inserted in Section 1]

The Counter-Reformation [is not usually distinguished as a distinct artistic period, though it is recognised as a strong influence.] The art of the latter 16^th century was skipped over by 19^th & 20^th century art historians as a last stage of decline after the High Renaissance, & because of its stylistic diversity Bailey pp 3-4. However Wittkower said that something like a style Sixtus V developed, & continued under Clement VIII & to some extent Pau lV. During this period, 1585-1621, Mannerist complexities were dissolved without the abandonment of its formalism. It was often blunt & pedestrian but clear & propagandistic with frightful martyrdoms as in Pomarancio Wittkower1973 pp 26-7.

Background I, Papacy & Jesuits:

(a) Pre-Counter Reformation: The year 1521 saw Loyola’s spiritual awakening, & in 1527 there was the Sack of Rome by a marauding army which pretended it was to acting for the Emperor. This was seen as a retribution for its moral decline & luxury Ebrit, Turner RtoI pp 188-9, EBrit. In 1529 Clement VII made peace with the Emperor at the Treaty of Barcelona & France relinquished Italy to Spain, Treaty of Cambrai EBrit. The Papacy, hitherto progressive, was now dominated by Spain & became reactionary Blunt1940 p104.

(b) Transition: Pope Paul III 1534-49 was a nepotist & a patron of Michelangelo & Titian. He was a religious reformer & until his last years supported the Humanist party led by Contarini, Pole & Sadoleto. This aimed at church reform & wanted a compromise with the Protestants. In 1540 the Jesuits were approved & in 1542 the Holy Office was established to supervise the Inquisition. Between 1545 & 1547 there was the first phase of the Council of Trent at which the Humanist party was defeated DaviesN p496, etc.

(c) Counter Reformation: The Council of Trent met again during 1551-2 & 1562-3. In 1557 the Holy Office issued its first Index of prohibited books, & between 1566 & 1572 Pius V was pope. He was the former Inquisitor-General & was austere & fanatical DaviesN pp 490, 496-7, Blunt1940 pp 65,76.

(d) Gradual Relaxation: Sixtus V, 1585-90, was more pragmatic. He defied Spain & favoured Henry of Navarre. The mood in Rome changed from caution to celebration, & there was a shift from the Church Militant to the church Triumphant. However he only commissioned pedestrian Counter-Reformation work for the Vatican Library HallM pp 3, 4, Friedlaender1955 pp 60-61.

(d) Spirituality: There was a revival of spirituality from around 1550. S. Philip Neri, who worked in Rome during 1533-95, founded the Congregation of the Oratory in 1564. It was a body of proselatising priests, who through the confessional, prayer meetings & discussions, aimed to lead the laity into sanctifying their lives. Elsewhere other saintly figures followed suite especially in France where Cardinal Pierre de Berulle founded the Oratory of Paris, 1611 NCMH3 pp 70, 183.

Background II, Impact on Art: Only on the penultimate day of the Council of Trent was there a ruling on artistic matters, & because there was insufficient time for extended debate or detail, the decree (On the Invocation, Veneration, & Relics of the Saints, & on Sacred Images) said little about religious images. It merely stated that they were not be so beautiful as to arouse lust, that bishops should prevent images that were diorderly, unbecoming or confusingly arranged, & that all unusual images in any place or church required the approval of a bishop. Enforcement was delegated to the bishops HallM2011 pp 19-20, the Decree. The extent of enforcement differed from bishop rick to bishop rick NGArt1986p43.

Background III, Artistic Debate. In 1552 Archbishop Catarino, who participated in the Council of Trent & was an advocate of decorum & an opponent of Apocraphal & obscene images, complained about religious works that failed to excite devotion by the populace. Here he was criticising Maniera painters whose appeal was entirely intellectual HallM2011 pp 25, 112. In 1564 Gilio da Fabriano published his Dialogue on the Errors & Abuses of Painters criticising them for their preoccupation with demonstrating their artistic ability. Hitherto it had been accepted that there should be one rule for both sacred & secular art but Gilio now refined the concept of decorum by distinguishing between paintings that are historical, poetical & of a mixed type. Differing decorums were appropriate for each with a wide margin of fantasy being allowable for poetic painting but with no departure from the text for scriptural history painting. Michelangelo was condemned for painting Christ without a beard HallM1999 p190 & 2011 pp 122-3, Grove12 pp 629-30. Gilio called for Passion scenes & martyrdoms that depicted Christ’s body as bloody & ugly, but not delicate & beautiful, in order to inspire devotion HallJ p190. In 1582 Paleotti, Archbishop of Bologna, published a treatise on the reform of religious painting in conformity with the decrees of the Council of Trent in which idealised Crucifixions were decared a breach of decorum. He condemned indecorous pictures where the Annunciation occured in rich surroundings & the Virgin was suggestively depicted as flushed, plump & bedizened HallJ pp284-5, NGArt1986p138, etc. His condemnation of mythological subjects was almost total, these being only permissible for scholars in private HallJ pp 284-5. Portraits should be restricted to those whose morality & saintliness would encourage virtue Bayer p9. However, the clear definition of the function of sacred images in the Trent decree freed artists from worry that worshipers would become idolatrous & over-involved HallM2011 p2.

Because religious paintings of a Mannerist, erotic or purely graceful type were effectively ruled out artists were now faced with the problem of finding some way in which they could paint interesting & appealing works to which there would be no objection HallM1999 pp 174-5, 191-2, etc. [Alternativly, they had to be content with producing unaventurous works & run the risk of being dull]. It is works of the latter type that are being considered here. For adventurous paintings of a proto-Baroque varietry See Baroque.

Background IV: Philip IV of Spain,1598-1621, handed power to Lerma who, after quickly enriching himself, assembled a huge art collection. He & other courtiers were interested in & patronised the new naturalistic painting emerging in Italy, especially that of the Florentine Reformers Brown p80.

Background V: The Carracci teaching academy was opened in Bologna in 1582 NGArt1986p239. Here there was a return to careful preparatory composition on paper & drawing from the model. The approach was cerebral & spontaneity was scornedHallM2011 p351.

Development:

The first Counter-Reformation paintings, eg by Siciolante, were characterised by a simple didacticism & a straightforward, & sometimes arid, narrative approach Hall1999 pp 211-2 & 2011 p5. The Florentine Reformers led by Santi de Tito from about 1574 abandoned Mannerism & painted in a naturlistic style See Florentine Reformers in Section 8.

Characteritics: In general paintings had darkish tones & strong chirascuro, although works in fresco were an exception because dark tonalities are difficult to achieve. Picture design was bold, often simple & always clear. There was a marked Realism & truth to nature. In religious pictures there was a preoccupation with martyrdom & the Passion. Works portrayed the beastliness of the crowning with thorns, the Flaggelation & the bearing of the cross. Christ’s suffering on the cross was also emphasised. It was the art of a period when the Church was militant & confidant but not yet triumphant & there was an absence of Baroque exuberance in technique or mood, which was solemn Bailey pp 28-9 etc. Work by these painters has been termed monumental (Moretto), sober (Moroni), somber (Muziano), & unrhetorical (Santi di Tito), RAVenice pp 185, 187, Bailey p28, L&L. Indeed those didactic paintings which abide by the letter of theTridentine decree are very boring, merely filling the gap between Mannerism & Baroque HallM2011 pp 5-6. [They were certainly not paintings that can be described or virtually criticised, like those of Barocci, as sensuous] or almost sentimental See HallM2011 pp 110, 111, 203, Bailey p29 ].

Painters: Bartolome & Vincente Carducho ; Cerano (early); Cigoli; Fontano; Maino; Morazzone; Moretto; Moroni; Muziano; Orrente; Procassini; Pulzone; Santi di Tito; [Bartolomeo Passarotti]; Brown Ch5 (Carducho-Orrente), NGArt1986 p136-9, (Fontana), L&L (Muziano, Pulzone), Friedlaender1955 pp 37-8 (Cerano), RAVenice pp 185, 187

ARTS & CRAFTS MOVEMENT:

[This was a movement that began during the latter part of the 19^th century with the aim of improving architecture & design. As such it is largely irrelevant so far as painting is concerned. However, it may be observed in passing that] a co-founder of the Art Workers Guild, a leading Arts & Crafts institution, was the painter & illustrator Walter Crane Farr p137. This was by no means the only intersection between painting & Arts & Crafts. Its Scottish champion was Patrick Geddes, 1854-1932. He viewed society as an organism which could be sick or healthy with art being necessary for its healthy functioning, & he promoted murals in Edinburgh, particularly by Phoebe Taqueria who was the most successful Arts & Crafts exponent in Scotland Macmillan pp 20-23. Moreover, it is notable that Socialism was a common faith among those who belonged to the Arts & Crafts movement & anti-capitalism was an important element in the development of Modernism for which see Modernism in Context in Section 7 & in particular the box entitled Anti-Capitalism, 1885-1910 Farr pp 179 –80

THE ASHCAN SCHOOL & AFTER (42)

Term: This was first used by Alfred Barr & Holgar Cahill in 1934. It refers to a group of realist painters active in New York in the decade before the first World War who shared an interest in subject matter from everyday city lifeTurnerEto PM p57, OxDicMod. The Eight were artists who in 1908 held a landmark exhibition at the Macbeth Gallery in Fifth Avenue which set the 20^th century on a path of modern art Doss p35. However, not all of the Eight were Ashcan painters, & some Ashcan painters did not belong to the Eight OxDicMod, Turner EtoPM p153

Background: From 1880s an ideology of manliness & toughness developed in America. This culminated in Theodore Roosevelt’s 1899 speech In Praise of the Strenuous Life. Roosevelt criticised overcivilized men & there was a reaction against the supposed feminisation of America, & sissy art & literature. The appearance of Darwinian struggle appeared in the novels of Frank Stephen Norris, Crane & Jack London Hughes1997 pp 302-3. Revitalisation through strenuous living took many forms including body-building among desk-bound workers, a taste for violent literature, & a fascination with the life of urban poor. Critics began celebrating American artists for their strength & virility, & it was argued that they were not decadent & effete like European painters RAMag Spring2013 pp 42-3.

A dynamic economy & the Progressive Movement was the context within which the Ashcan School flourished. It was a period during which emigrants flooded in with the number reaching a peak of over one million per year during the decade from 1905 to 1914. This was the new immigration & largely consisted of those from eastern & Southern Europe, who differed markedly from the previous Anglo-Saxon-German strains. Blacks also started to migrate to Northern cities after 1900 Puth pp 294, 299, Nicholas p202. The period after the Civil War was America’s Gilded Age during which big business effectively ruled the country under largely supine Republican administrations while Democrat city bosses ran the big cities Nicholas pp207-16. In reaction the Progressive Movement flourished between 1900 & 1917. The majority of progressive activists operated as individuals or in informal groupings at a local level. They exposed abuses, fought the predominant industrial interests, promoted government intervention of a progressive type, & promoted direct primary elections. At a federal level the Progressives had friends in Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, Taft & Woodrow Wilson. Although there was trust busting & numerous examples of government regulation, [what was of crucial importance was that America had for those on the Progressive side entered an era of optimism. The belief in rigid laissez faire was no longer predominant while at the same time the Unites States enjoyed the benefits of a dynamic & largely unfettered economy. This dynamism is reflected in the work of the Ashcan artists; witness the vibrant series by George Bellows of the construction site for the Pennsylvania station.] Jenkins pp 188-92,

Development: Sloan, Glackens, Shinn, Luks – newspaper illustrators for the Philadelphia Press – were induced by Robert Henri to give up newspaper illustration & train as artists. His persuasion was reinforced by technological change. By 1900 a process had been invented for reproducing photos on a printed page &, in consequence, newspaper artists lost their jobs Bjelajac p289. In 1904 Henri set up an art school in New York’s Upper Broadway, to which Bellows also belonged TurnerEtoPM p57, Bjelajac p289, Corbett2011 p50, After the War Ashcan realism continued as a minor & neglected genre. All the major Ash canners except Sloan had retired or were no longer interested in depicting city life, & even Sloan in his few relevant paintings was concerned with the glamour & excitement of the city’s show places. The only painter who appears to have continued painting Ashcan scenes during the 1920s was Glen Coleman, & even he gradually eliminated the human element from his art BrownM1955 p167, 170-1.

Painters: Bellows; Coleman; Luks; Myers; Glackens; Henri; Sloan; Shinn TurnerEtoPM p57. The Eight also included Arthur Davies, Lawson & Prendergast, who were not Ashcan artistsTurnerEtoPM p153

Speciality: Luks & Bellow’s depictions of brutal boxing & wrestling Bjelajac p290

Characteristics: Newspaper careers encouraged a vivid documentary emphasis leavened with humour & anecdote Corbett2011 pp 15-6. They painted portraits mostly of ordinary people Corbett2011 p19. Henri & his protégés were fewer social reformers than enthusiastic sportsmen seeking novel & exotic experiences of lower-class life, e.g., poor & immigrant children whose exuberance seemed to typify urban diversity & dynamism Bjelajac p289. As depicted by the Ashcan painters, America is raw, vigorous & exciting. Winters are harsh, the urban scene is haphazard, the inhabitants are energetic & sometimes brutal, but they are seldom dejected Hughes1997 Figs 1998, 199, 200, 202, 203, Corbett2011 Figs 4, 8, 12, 13, but see Fig 5, One notable feature is the lack of interest in factories & machine production. Factories & industrial machinery did not appear until the 1920s BrownM1955 pp 113-24.

Reception: Although the Ashcan painters chose subjects that were vulgar & ugly by genteel Gilded Age standards [their work was in general well received]. Even the conservative critic Royal Cortissoz, who was left fuming by the Armory Show, had nothing but praise for the work of Henri, Luks, Bellows & Sloan Bjelajac p292, I&C pp 375-8, Hughes1997 p359, Perlman pp 48-9. It is ironic that it was the protagonists of Modernism who frowned upon the Ashcan painters because of their realism Doss p62

BRISTOL SCHOOL OF PAINTING:

This is said to refer to the landscape painters who came together during the earlier part of the 19^th century. Hitherto despite its wealth & fine views Bristol had not produced any notable painters except Sir Thomas Lawrence who left when a child, & around 1800 Edward Bird was the only professional artist of any talent. He now became the centre of a small group, largely composed of amateurs, who met together & went out sketching. In 1824 the first exhibition of Bristol artists was held at the newly opened Bristol Literary & Philosophical Institution Grove4 p823, Greenacre1973 pp10-11. The work of the Bristol School, & indeed of the individual artists, was extremely diverse & included landscape, townscape, seascape, history paintings, genre & portraits Greeacre1973.

Painters: Edward Bird; Nathan Branwhite; Samuel Colman; George Cumberland; Edward Francis, James & Thomas Danby; Rev John Eagles; Samuel Jackson; James Johnson; Robert Hancock; William Muller; Hugh O’Neill, Paul Poole; Edward Rippingille James Pyne; Rolinda Sharples; William West Greenacre1973

COSTUMBRISMO:

This emerged in Spain during the reign of Isabella II, 1833-68 as a literary & artistic movement. It focused on everyday life, mannerisms & customs. In painting there was a search for national subject matter as an alternative to academic Neo-Classicism. Spanish nationalism was a legacy of the resistance to Napoleon. Costumbrismo combined a Realist focus on representation & a romantic interest in expression, & its works were often satiric. Painters drew on Murillo, some of Goya’s late humorous capriccios, & 17^th century genre from Spain & the Low Countries. The main centres of activity were Andalusia, especially Seville, & Madrid. Here artists employed large areas of solid colour painted with a broad brush whereas Sevillian work was more delicate & serene. In Madrid figures were individualised but in Seville they were types. There was Costumbrismo painting in Mexico. The principal painters were Eugenio Velasasquez & Leonardo Alenza Y Nietro in Madrid; Valeriano from Seville; & Jose Arrieta in Mexico Grove29 p284, Wikip, Carr p105.

BAROQUE PAINTING including Le Brun & his followers: (10)

See also Classicism in Baroque Era:

Term/Concept: [Baroque has long been seen as a distinct artistic movement & its inclusion requires no justification. What may seem surprising is the inclusion of Charles Lebrun & his followers in the French Academy. Lebrun regarded himself as pursuing the same path as Poussin who is regarded as an arch-Classicist. However, as we shall see, Lebrun & the Poussinists were only pseudo-Classicists & their work was closely related to Baroque painting].

Concept & Historiography: The rival merits of Baroque & classical stylistic features were debated at the Academy of S. Luke in Rome during the 1630s between Andrea Saachi, the partisan of classical art, & Pietro da Cortona who championed the Baroque. Saachi mainted that for maximum impact a picture should only contain a few figures while his opponents aimed at a splendid & lively general effect which would provoke marvel & surprise Waterhouse1962 pp 55, 58. [The debate resumed during the Quarrel of Colour versus Drawing in the French Academy during the 1670s.]

The term Baroque began to be applied to the fine arts in the 1750s & was used in a derogatory sense. Diderot said it was ”the ridiculous taken to excess”. Not until Wolfflin’s Renaissance and Baroque was the term fully neutralised and used simply to designate a post-Renaissance era & style which was fully formed in 1580 TurnerRtoI pp 35-6. Alois Riegel argued that the supposedly decadent Baroque was a positive & expressive era Friedlaender1925 pxii. He also tried to connect Baroque art with the cultural & intellectual history of the times H&P p12.. In 1909 Walter Weibel (not Werner Weisbach) linked the directness & realism of Loyola’s spiritual recommendations to the art of Bernini & his time W&J p12. Dutch art was usually passed over by the Baroque & Classical theorists because it did not appear to fit their schema Price p140.

PROTO-BAROQUE

Art historians have distinguished an early or pre-Baroque period that extended over the papacies of Sixtus V (1585-90), Clement VIII (1592-1605), & Paul V (1605-21) Friedlaender1955 p60. The decree on images & other matters which was drawn up when the Council of Trent ended in 1563 made it clear that the purpose of religious images was to move the faithful to love & adore God Hall2011 pp117, 119. This was the impetus which turned painters in a new direction now that paintings of a Mannerist, erotic or purely graceful type had been effectively ruled out Hall1999 pp 174-5, 191-2, etc. As Marcia Hall says, “Both patrons & artists sought new solutions for the sacred image, recognising that Maniera paintings of the pre-Trent period did not provide satisfactory images to stir the worshipper’s devotion” H&C p6.

Proto-Baroque painting coincided with the birth of modern theatre. Professional actors replaced aristocratic amateurs & began performing newly written plays in theatres. Viewers of both plays & paintings entered an alternative, illusionistic world Hall2011 p8. Venice was an early centre for commercial theatre Hall2011 p8. See Anti-Mannerism & Counter-Reformation Painting for further Background factors.

The Proto-Baroque Painters

(i) Tintoretto for theatre. His Miracle of the Slave, 1548, was the first Baroque painting. Tintoretto he was the first great Proto-Baroque artist who began working on his huge series of works at the Scuola di S. Roco in 1565 Newton1952 p7, L&L, Murrays1959. His paintings there are characterised by violent energy, arbitrary colour, chirascuro, asymmetrical & exaggerated perspective, & high vanishing points which create a funnelling effect L&L. The Scoular pictures & the Last Supper have visionary light, Mannerist boldness & asymmetry with broken vistas & sudden jumps into space. His figures are luminous & insubstantial but retaining form. Here oil painting is pushed to the limit Steer pp 158, 160

(ii) Barocci for colorito: In his mature works from the time of The Disposition, 1567-9, Barocci employed warm assimilative colours which are close to each other in hue, value & saturation. By avoiding colours that contrast, & by making colour fields small with easy transitions, he encourages the viewer to scan his paintings. The eye flows from one point to another generating a flickering effect, heightening the emotional impact, & promotes reverie in works that are painterly Hall2011 p211, Posner1971 p27.

(iii) El Greco for movement: Early on his work was naturalistic but during the 1580s there was a marked shift in style D&E pp 48-51. His technique became freer & sketchier, & his compositions highly dramatic with figures that appear to be in motion. These are works of an expressionist type. Not all of their features –acid colours & elongated figures- appear in Baroque painting but his works have a dynamic, stagey & theatrical quality which place him in the Proto-Baroque grouping, despite the mistaken belief that he is a Mannerist Grove13 pp 341-45, Vaizey p128, D&E pp 56, 200-3, 206-12 Friedlaender1925 p52.

(iv) Caravaggio for light & dark: He was the final major Proto-Baroque artist, first employing dramatic chiaroscuro in his scenes from the life of St Matthew, 1599-1603. He testified the effect by having the light penetrate the darkness obliquely from above. Out flung limbs, violent movement & contorted faces were other features of a theatrical nature Kitson1966 pp 100-1, Friedlaender1955 pp 12, 14, 22-7, 117, WestS1996, Neret pp 48, 61.

HIGH BAROQUE

Intellectual Background:

In about 1610 Galileo made his first telescope & he began making important astronomical discoveries EBrit. His book praising Copernicus appeared in 1632 & he was tried by the Inquisition DaviesN p508. A conviction that there was an over-riding harmony in the universe underpinned the discoveries of Kepler & Galileo Pevsner1968 p42. The medieval concept of distinct spatial spheres & a hierarchy of things completely disappeared. There was a debate over whether space was finite or infinite but agreement that it was continuous & indescribably vast, as shown by Satan’s travels in Milton H&P p14. Infinity was the mightiest idea of the Baroque age Pevsner1968 p42. During the 17^th century the idea of natural law started to replace that of supernatural interference Lecky1869 p285. Theologians & philosophers now took an interest in the psychology of the soul Kitson1966 p12

Religious Background:

(a) Catholic Advance: At the close of the Council of Trent in1563 Catholicism’s position was unpromising in northern, central & eastern Europe. However, by 1600 the situation was very different. Catholicism had consolidated its position in France & Flanders, & in Germany the spread of Protestantism had stopped. The movement had been weakened by the quarrels between Lutherans & Calvinists. In the Bavarian & Hapsburg lands there was now greater support for a repressive Catholicism; there was a Catholic revival in Hungary & Poland; & in 1596 a large part of the Ukraine joined Rome, although the old rites were retained NCMH4 pp 59-60. Under Paul V, 1605-21 the disciplinary decrees of the Council of Trent were rigidly enforced but the Inquisition became less oppressive in Rome Ogg p400, Pevsner p37.

(b) The Jesuits, Emotion & Free Will: From around1600 the Jesuits become less strict & more political with easier admission & the frequent retention by members of power over their property Pevsner p37. Towards end of the 16^th century there was a movement led by Jesuits & the Oratory, which was encouraged by Clement VIII, to make religion less discouraging & more accessible with greater appeal to the emotions Blunt1940 p133. The Jesuit spokesmen, Aqueviva & Molina, challenged the rigid & gloomy Dominican doctrines, arguing that man’s will is freer than St Thomas thought. His doctrines had been found an obstacle to proselytization Blunt1940 p134. According to Molina, 1535-1600, God wanted to save all men, with the salvation of each man being in his own hands. Though God had foreknowledge of men’s actions, he did not determine them. The casuist Escobar y Mendoza, who died in died in 1669, argued that men being human would sometimes err but had to be excused. This contrasted with the Jansenist belief that ignorance was inexcusable. Escobar thought that that right action was to be judged not in isolation but according to purpose & circumstance, with a need for confessors’ advice in case of doubt. The Jesuits were now accused of making religion too easy to observe NCMH4 p185.

(c) The Papacy: Under Paul V, 1605-21 the disciplinary decrees of Council of Trent were rigidly enforced but the Inquisition became less oppressive in Rome Ogg p400, Pevsner p37. It was under Urban VIII, 1623-44, that Counter-Reformation discipline was substantially relaxed. He enjoyed life eating, drinking, & reading & writing poetry. Spiritual interests were now subordinated to political considerations & the protection of papal territories by force of arms. The Pope had become an Italian prince Pevsner p37, Ogg pp 400-1. Nepotism & cronyism were prevalent. Urban’s brother, his other brother’s brother-in-law, & his nephews Francesco & Antonio, aged 19 & 26, were made cardinals. Shifts of power & short papal tenures those taking office to enrich themselves. There was little distinction between the Pope’s papal & personal income. Important posts were sometimes sold to the highest bidder Haskell pp 31-2, 54.

Patronage:

The outstanding feature of the Baroque art was the extent to which it was Court art, although royalty, princely families, the papacy, & those closely connected with the foregoing were not the only source of commissions See Hauser2 p158 etc.

(i) Rome: Papal patronage flourished under Paul V, 1605-21, & climaxed under Urban VIII, 1623-44. He & his nephews were the great patrons of Baroque art. Although they were by no means the only patrons an increasing monopolisation of wealth & power meant that they came to dictate fashion. However due to their individualism, contrasting tendencies & artists were all catered for Haskell pp 3-4, 32, 62. Thereafter there was a decline in papal patronage because of previous extravagance & the collapse of the Italian economy largely due to foreign competition Haskell pp146-9. There was a revival of patronage under Alexander VII (1655-67), especially for Bernini & for Cortona with his decorative scheme at the Quirnal Haskell pp 150-1. However economic decline continued & the number & the standards of the great patrons fell. Only the Colonna family continued to make large purchases, especially Lorenzo. He had eclectic tastes but particularly favoured mythological cum landscape works by Rosa, Dughet & Claude Haskell pp 152, 155. There was a precipitous decline during 1667-89 under Clement IX, Clement X & Innocent XI due to financial stringency & religious dogmatism. The lack of opportunity discouraged artists from going to Rome Haskell pp 162-3.

OK (ii) Italian Provincial Patronage by aristocrats & religious orders in the leading cities, particularly Genoa & Naples, was extensive Haskell p203;

(iii) Foreign demand for Italian art: Until Urban VIII’s death in 1644 few foreign rulers were able to compete with the Popes, the exception

here being Spain & the Spanish Viceroys in Naples. Declining papal patronage was replaced by sales abroad, & most Italian artists were heavily reliant on them by end of the 17^th century. Some Italian painters who were dependant on foreign demand continued to live in Italy & others settled abroad Haskell pp169-71.

Papal theocratic patronage in Rome, & aristocratic cum oligarchic patronage in Venice probably explain why their artists including Bernini, Cortona, & later Tiepolo, produced public masterpieces rather than work displaying private & individual outlook as did Velazquez, Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain, la Tour & Poussin. This was despite, or even because of Italian patronage. UrbanVIII, Grand Prince Ferdinand, Francesco Algarotti was tolerant & enlightened. ”Unorthodoxy was killed with kindness” Haskell pp 384-5

Central Europe: Here patronage both at home & from abroad were of particular importance. They were by purchases monarchs, princes & prelates were, with the princes often also holding bishop pricks. The most notable princely family were the Schoenborn’s who, combining these roles, were important builders of Baroque residencies & churches for which ceiling paintings were commissioned or part of the package. So important were the Schoenborn’s that the age became known as Schomburgkia . The family was however only one among the many who involved in what was a mania for building which embraced the emperor Leopold 1, the Wittelsbach’s who ruled Bavaria, & the Liechtenstein’s Haskell pp 192-3, H&P p378, Wikip. They had recovered fast from the Thirty Years War, the Wittelsbach’s had been strengthened by the Peace of Westphalia, & the Liechtenstein family had been greatly enriched by the expropriations that followed Protestant defeats Haskell pp 193-4. Another source of funds may have been the switch in this part of Europe from the direct management of estates (Gutherrschaft) to a system of tenure where management was undertaken by leaseholders or those paying rents or in kind (Grundhrrrschaft) Cippola p287 p287. There had also been a build up an accumulation of ecclesiastic property through bequest & purchase since the early 17^th century which had more than made good previous losses NCMH6 p601.

France: The purchase of Baroque painting was between the early 1660s & 1683 of a distinctive type: [the source of finance was to a large extent from the state & it was almost dispensed by one man, Charles Le Brun.] The most important commissions were for work at Versailles & Le Brun chose who received them. This did not mean that only those who sided with him in the dispute between the Rubenists & Poussinists were not awarded contracts but it did mean that their work had to conform to the decorative schemes which he had devised Blunt1954 pp 243-4, Allen p160.

Development & Nature of the High Baroque, c1610-50

A key painting was Rubens’ S. George & the Dragon, around 1608, which it has been claimed launched the Baroque Wedgwood1967 p40. Piero da Cortona, Giovanni Lanfranco & Guercino were from the 1620s the great painters of Roman High Baroque L&L, Grove18 p730, L&L, OxDicArt, L&L, Martin pp 28-33. A notable development was Lanfranco’s Assumption of the Virgin in S. Andrea della Valle, 1625-7, which was the first great dome fresco to the Roman High Baroque Grove18 p733.

Painters: Borschberg; da Cortona; Guercio; Lanfranco; Rubens; Cornelis Schut the Elder; Thomas Willeboirts OxDicArt, L&L, Waterhouse1962 p40; Vlieghe pp 88-91, Grove28 p179 [Check]

Late Baroque from around 1650

(a) Italy: da Cortona’s later work heralded the end of [High] Baroque with its avoidance of extreme illusionism & his clear division between the painting & the stucco enframement which was in pure white & gold L&L. Between about 1650 &1665 a sumptuous decorative classicism that developed throughout through Europe, particularly in France with Le Brun Pevsner1968 p57, L&L p537. In Italy powerful diagonals were replaced by an undynamic wave-like motion throughout picture & which in ceiling paintings overflows the edge of the painting. Closed formal groupings were avoided & self-sufficient & strong figures were replaced by unstable ones depicted through oblique viewpoints, sotto in us, truncating, Manneristic devices or lax structuring. In sum, there was a desire for decorative effect Pevsner1968 p75

Painters: Castletello, Coli, Gaulli, Gerhardi, Giordano, Maffei, Pozzo, Pretti Pevsner1968 Ch3 [Check]

France: [Here the development of Late Baroque was complex & intriguing). In 1647 the Royal Academy was established & it soon came under the control of Charles Le Brun. He was a great admirer of the Classical painter Poussin with whom he had studied in Rome. In controversy within the Academy between the Roubinists & Poussinists he sided with the latter. Nevertheless, his own work, & that of the painters who worked for him at Versailles, was Baroque with a tincture of classicism. The subject matter was drawn from the ancient world but in style it was largely Baroque: dramatic, grandiloquent, diagonal & with billowing draperies. Towards the end of the century there was a group of Van Dyckian painters –de Troy, Rigaud & Largillierre- whose work was even less Classical Blunt1954 p277 .

Spain: Here the Baroque style was pioneered by Juan de Roelas who from 1605 began painting dramatic works. They teem with incident, there is strong upward movement, & the figures are lively & varied. Scenes enlivened by abundant highlights using textured brushwork Brown1998 pp 104-6. Around 1655 Herrera the Younger & Murillo began painting in a High Baroque style. Herrera’s Allegory of the Eucharist & the Immaculate Conception is an animated work using feathery paintwork in which putti twist & turn among fluffy clouds. In the Stigmatisation of St Francis, which became the model for local painters in Seville, Murillo employed sketchy brushwork, rich & soft colours, & complicated poses Brown 1998 pp 204-5 .

Central Europe: There was a prolonged period of recuperation after the Thirty Years War & painting & architecture were in the hands of second-rate foreigners. Only from around 1683, when the siege of Vienna was lifted, did a brilliant architectural revival commence. There was a building mania & later there were two talented local architects: Fischer von Erlach, 1656-1723, & Johann von Hildebrandt , 1668-1745. In Austria an immense network of Jesuit & other orders engaged in new building, & the monasteries at Melk & St Florian were reconstructed or extended by another great architect, Jakob PrandtauerNCMH5 pp172-3 , NCMH6 p601-2, H&P p378. A great period of High Baroque ceiling painting began in 1695 with Johann Rottmayr & such painting flourished throughout the area Hempel p113. These & other religious paintings were exuberant works, crowded with incident [& glowing with colour] Hempel Pl 35, 41B, 43B, 46-7; Baur pp 30-1. During the second half of the 17^th century sheer spectacle became the raison d’etre of many works of art in Bavarian churches & palaces Kitson1966 p34.

England: There was also a smallish Baroque movement in which the chief painters were Lely with his sexy beauties & Kneller with his portraits Hook p186. [When he was at his best, they are full of character].

Characteristics of Baroque Painting:

(a) It is dramatic, theatrical & animated, [although these features take various forms] Conti p38. An important influence here was El Greco’s continuous upward soaring movement & emotion conveyed by means of fluttering draperies & ecstatic expression. From Venetian painting & in particular Tintoretto the Baroque painters took their brushwork & colour that is rich & glowing rather than bright KItson1966 p 41. From around 1616 there was a stress on movement & vitality as developed by Rubens who built his compositions around a spiral or zig-zag diagonal starting in the foreground & ending in a climax. In Baroque works draperies flow, & figures & limbs surge & twist in a manner that is uncontested but not altogether natural. A feature of Baroque movement is the tendency for forms to merge & blend with the eye only having a few resting points Kitson1966 pp 42-3; Wolfflin 1915 p14.

(b) Baroque painting is to an exceptional degree, & in a distinctive manner, concerned with the depiction of light. The painting is not lit uniformly, [as in much Renaissance work], but in patches with alternating areas of intense light alternating with areas of dark shadow. Here the key figure was Caravaggio, though he was to some extent anticipated by Tintoretto Conti pp 40-41, Kitson1966 p41.

(c) [Hitherto paintings had almost always been self-contained & inward turned, but in Baroque art there is a feeling of movement out of the picture. This may be towards the viewer, backwards into infinity, or outwards beyond the sides.] Or in Wolfflin’s more abstract formulation, “the style is open form everywhere points out beyond itself & purposely looks limitless” [??]. Figures, following Ludvico & Annibale Carracci & Caravaggio, are concentrated in the foreground, although from the 1630s the reverse occurs in order to emphasise space as in Claude, although he is scarcely Baroque. When illusionism is intended to astound or move, but not deceive, it is an imaginative yet convincing representation of the supernatural with the apparent movement of figures out of the picture, as in Rubens’ Duke of Lerma, which was experimental, & Van Dyke’s equestrian Charles I which is fully Baroque Kitson1966 pp 15-16, 33. Figures reached out to the limits of large canvases; & there is sometimes normal spatial limitations are disregarded with figures that spill out of ceilings, as in da Cortona & Gaulli H&P p14. Painters were involved in the emotional content of their works & tried to involve the viewer by painting twisting movements & emphatic gesture, & by using saturated, glowing colours Clark1978 p94, Kitson1966 pp 38, 41. There is a stress on sensuous & visual beauty, & a bias towards decoration. Michelangelo’s austere Sistine Ceiling gave way to that of Annibale Carracci in the Palazzo Farnese Kitson1966 pp 38-9. Violence was frequent but martyrs were now exalted heroes & there was less emphasis on bloody, broken & helpless bodies Kitson1966 p41.

(d) [The last key characteristic of Baroque painting is its painterly quality, though this can be seen as a consequence of it other features rather than an independent consideration.]

(e) The output of Baroque painters differs from those that were classical. Domenichino & Saachi & other classicists tended to have difficulties with invention & produced little whereas Baroque artists were prolific Allen pp 54-5

Termination Time?

The odd feature about the dispute over colour within the French Academy is that it was followed by no brilliant school of colourists proposing an alternative to the official style Allen p160. The explanation might be Le Brune’s control over vital state patronage until 1683. La Fosse was for instance held in check by having to work under Le Brun at Versailles Blunt p272. Control over state patronage passed to Pierre Mignard but this did not indicate any change in policy with respect to colour Blunt pp 244-5. La Fosse managed in his Apollo & Thetis to give his nymphs a rosy flesh colour & a grace which foreshadowed Boucher. Louis XIV for whom it was painted turned against such work because of his increasing poetry & the influence of his mistress Madame de Maintenon Blunt pp 272-3. Not until the death of Louis XIV was it clear that Baroque painters were

Painter fighting a losing battle See Proto-Rococo & Rococo. Even then Baroque held on in religious painting until the Revolution Wakefield p11. In Italy in Italy there was a gradual switch from Baroque to Rococo & Piazetta, who did not die until 1754, was a belated Baroque painter whose work was a rebuke to Rococo characteristics Levey1966 pp 22, 135. In Austria the switch to Rococo-like grace & colouration took place in the evolving work of Paul Troger & was complete by 1752 Grove31 p357.

Painters:

(a) Italy: founders the Carracci [but they are also included under Anti-Mannerist!!] Pevsner p50; Allori; Baciccia/Bacoccio/Gaulli; Baldocchio; Battistello/Caracciola; [Cagnacci]; Caravaggio; Castletello; Cavallino, Cavadini; Ceruti; Cingrani; Cigoli/Cardi; Coli; Cortes&CouRtoIsM [!!!]

(Burgundy); Crespi; da Cortona; Dolci; Domenichino; Furini; Galgario/Ghislandi; Gaulli; Antonio & Filippo Gerhardi; Orazio Gentileschi; Giordano; Guercino; Lanfranco; Liss/Lys (Germany); Maffei; Magnasco; Mola; Morazzone; Pozzo; [Piazzetta (18^th century)]; Preti; Reni; Ribera (Valencia); Romanelli: Rosa; Sacchi; Saraceni; Sassoferrato; Solimena; Strozzi; Tiarini;Trevisani; Volterrano/Franceschini L&L,Waterhouse1962, Pevsner1968 Ch3.

(b) France: Blanchard (early); Bourdon (early); Jean-Baptiste Corneille; Nicolas de Largilliere; Jean Francois de Troy; Michael Dorigny; Perrier (early); Poerson (early); Restout (France & 18^th century); Hyacinthe Rigaud; Vouet OxDicArt; L&L, Wakefield p98; Blunt1954 pp 167-171, 277, Allen pp 94, 191.

(c) Spain: Antolinez; Arellano? Cano; Carreno; Coello; Cotan; Hamen?;Herrera Younger & Elder; Leal; Maino; Mazo; Murillo; Orrente; Palomino? Pereda; (Ribera); Ricci; Rizi; Roelas; Francesco & Juan Ribalta; Tristan; Velazquez L&L, Brown1998

(d) Central Europe: Cosmas Asam; Heinrich Fehling; Johann Harms; Johann Holzer; Johan Kracker; Kupecky/Kupetzky; Karel Skreta Sotnovosky; Johann Schofeld; Paul Troger; Michael Willmann L&L, Hempel pp 82-5, 117, 139, 146, 174, 187, 205

(e) The Low Countries: Jordeans; Rembrandt, Rubens; Van Dyke; van Thulden

(f) Great Britain: Closterman (Germany); Dahl (Sweden); Kneller (Germany); Lely (Germany); Streeter; Thornhill; Vanderbank; John Michael Wright HookJ, Appendix 1

THE BORROWERS (57)

Term/Concept: The term is my own. A more sonorous word, widely employed by art critics, is appropriation which is the use of an existing object or image with little transformation OxDicMod. [However, appropriation is a dangerous word because it is a grand & sonorous term which appears to legitimise what is taking place. Borrowing is a more neutral activity.]

Development: In the past even the most innovative artists borrowed images from their predecessors. However, during the early 20^th century the activity became more transparent with the development of collage by Picasso & Braque the use of ready-mades by Duchamp . In collage extraneous objects were incorporated into the art work & in a ready-made an object that had no artistic purpose was declared to be art OxDicMod, Wikip. In collage the imported object was modified &/or formed part of assemblage (& ready-mades are outside the field of painting). However, during the 1960s appropriation deliberately became less creative with the flag & target paintings that Jaspar Johns painted from 1955. He emphasised the ready-made & impersonal elements in his creations. The imagery was pre-existing [& he was not trying to depict what he saw Grove17 p614. Because he produced his works in series, he paradoxically borrowed from himself]. Another important step was the essay Death of the Author in 1968 by Roland Bathes in which denied that originality was possible & said that it was only possible to rearrange existing signs OxDicMod p27. By the early 1980s appropriation was being widely used by those who were marketing art Hughes1991 p411.

Background: In the 1980s the belief in a progressive modernist movement was replaced by vague notions of important & cutting-edge art. The money sloshing around in the American art market had to go somewhere, with important art being characterised by size, pretention, inscrutability & postmodern recycling as in the work of Julian Schnabel & David Salle. Art was the only commodity on which limitless amounts could be spent without the appearance of vulgarity. It was produced by the first generation of artists to have grown up in front of television with its ultra-fast change of images, banal narrative, fixation with celebrity & what was cool, & absence of first-hand experience of nature Hughes 1991 pp 409-11, 1997 pp 597-600

Characteristics: The work of The Borrowers would appear to be second hand & derivative. In Pop art there was a reluctance to use visual experience first-hand & a preference for pre-digested images R&S p252. When questioned Pop artists nearly always talked about ways of looking rather than what is actually seen LucieS1975 p163. The Borrowers do not paint & are not even inspired by the world of nature, & the man-made objects which they depict are not how they normally look. When Warhol painted a soup can or boxes of Brillo soap pads the lighting appears to be virtually uniform. Objects are not lit from a particular direction & the shading & shadows are often minimal Crowther p195, Osterwold pp 128, 166, 171, but see p167. Where they are non-minimal as in his images of massed Coca-Cola bottles & dollar bills, 1962, this is due to intentional misregistering [& differential inking] in the silk-screen process & not to observation Osterwold pp 31, 7, Doss p158. It is claimed that here, & in his paintings of soup cans, Warhol is being subversive & that this elevates his work because the dollar symbolised capitalist success, & Coca-Cola & Campbell’s soup were iconic brands. However, it is argued that in in reality money-making had become an obsession & the two products were mass produced over-hyped & that their worship would be absurd Osterwold pp 26-7. 30-34, Crowther p199. This view of Warhol is questionable. He celebrated Coca-Cola in a passage which is quoted & had a strong reverence for the capitalist system Osterwold p30, Grove32 p863, moreover it us conceded that in Super Realism & the work of Richard Estes & Don Eddy is almost indistinguishable from photography. [Although the work of The Borrowers may not be always be entirely derivative & second hand] the element of originality is at best extremely limited, or as in Jeff Koon’s Rabbit the subject matter is banal Crowther p194. [Bad Painting was also trivial, although here its practitioners opposed the emotional detachment of the Minimalists See Bad Painting in Section 8. There are however some exceptions to what has been said about triviality because a few Borrowers, such as David Hockney & Peter Blake, are more substantial figures.]

Painters: Artschwager; Bengston; Boshier; Peter Blake; Boty; D’Artschwager; Dine; Fahlstrom; Goode; David Hockney; Richard Hamilton; Indiana; Ray Johnson; Allen Jones; Jasper Johns, Kitaj; Lichtenstein; Peter Philips; Ramos; Rauchenberg; Rosenquist; Ruscha; Richard Smith; Tilston; Warhol; Wesselmann TurnerEtoPM p314, Spalding1986 p195, OxDicMod

BRITISH GOLDEN AGE & GRAND MANNER, 1730-1830: (14)

Historiography & Period:

(a) Grand Manner: In the 18^th century this was an English term for History Painting, & lofty idealisation applied to other genres. It was much used by Reynolds in his Discourses L&L. However, the concept goes back to 17^th century Italy & to Bellori in particular OxDicArt. It was the official style of the French Academy & was promoted by Shaftesbury & Jonathan Richardson the ElderTurnerRtoE p143:

(b) Golden Age: The concept goes back to Ovid or even earlier See Arcadia. The term has been applied to various artistic eras, including both the Dutch 17^th century & British 18^th century painting from Hogarth to Romney Haak, Vaughan1999 pp 7, 18, 94-5 etc. That Kneller, who died in 1723, did not belong to the Golden Age seems clear, whereas Hogarth, who whose career began around 1730, must certainly be included. Jonathan Richardson, Charles Jervas & Michael Dahl, who to a greater or lesser extent were old-style painters, naturally continued to do so (though they had retired or died by about 1740) Waterhouse1953 pp 146, 150. 165–6, L&L. It has been claimed that Knapton & Hudson, who were only just beginning their careers in the early 1730s, were in the tradition of Riley & Richardson & Riley & applied paint in an old, ungraceful manner Grove14 p841, L&L, Waterhouse1953 pp 165-6. However, Knapton & Hudson cannot be regarded as backward-looking artists if only because of the animation of their figures L&L, Solkin 2015 pp 133-4, Hallett p43.

Although it is impossible to draw exact boundaries, it does appear that the 1730s were, as will be shown, a watershed not only in British art & but also in politics, music, literature & philanthropy. In painting there was:

the arrival of what Vertue at the time described as “the pencilling, touching, manner “: in place of Kneller & his style there were “several painters “who draw & colour masterly” Waterhouse1953 p163. There was not only an advance in technique & treatment but also a dramatic extension of scope. During the 1730s there was a new & flourishing school of British Conversation painting (Hogarth, Highmore, Dandridge & Devis), & this was accompanied by or led on to the development of paintings illustrating literary sources & to pure genre (Vandebank, Hogarth & Highmore) Waterhouse1953 pp 176, 181-3, 194. There were also important developments in landscape where Wooton, who was already painting in the manner of Dughet, began working in the style of Claude Solkin2015 p69.

The British Golden Age has been assumed, at least for portraits, to end with Romney who died in 1802. This is because of the adverse view of Lawrence who it has been supposed put paid to grand portraiture because of his vacuity & permanent adolescence Vaughan1999 pp 94-5 etc. This judgement seems extraordinarily harsh & dated. It ignores both the verdict of the time & the extent to which he continued to paint in a Gainsborough-like manner. In portraiture, the Golden Age did not end before the death of Lawrence in 1830 who left behind no significant followers or creative influence, with the possible exception of Sir Francis Grant Levey2005 pp 279, 312-3.

It is not in portraiture but in landscape & genre that there is a genuine problem of where to draw the concluding line for the British Golden Age. Is the work of Constable, Turner & Wilkie to be included or not? Constable would seem to better regarded as a Romantic-Naturalist & Turner is surely Romantic-Sublime. The former was too much in love with nature to be associated with Reynolds & the Grand Manner, &, although Turner, was certainly grand his work was characterised by a grandeur that was sublime. On the other hand, Wilkie, & other genre painters of the early 19^th century, are in the great tradition of Hogarth Macmillan1986 p152, Solkin2015 p285.

What is clear is that Fuseli, who like Tuner painted pictures of disaster, does not belong to the British Golden Age, which was characterised by confidence & optimism.

Background to the Golden Age & Grand Manner:

(A) Nationalism: An ideology of England identity & exceptionalism was longstanding but from around 1740 it took a new form. In 1739 Walpole who was a man of peace was driven into war with Spain because the Duke of Newcastle, the borough monger on whom Walpole relied for support, wanted one. He was alarmed at the growing unrest of the trading community. The aspirations of the City of London were voiced by William Pitt who believed that England’s grandeur was the will of God & in a commercial imperialism. He aimed supremacy at sea, the capture of French trading posts & somewhat later the takeover of Canada WilliamsB p209, Plumb pp 71, 109-10. Colonial expansion was accompanied by a new belief in the superiority of British culture. The first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica in 1773 complained that despite the nation’s military prowess, the English language was less known than that of any other European nation. However, in 1755 Dr Johnson had already published his dictionary with the aim of purging the language of foreign intrusions, & his edition of Shakespeare, 1765, helped secure his place as the great national poet. The Shakespeare Jubilee of 1769 with its busts & engravings inaugurated the Shakespeare industry & by his retirement in 1776 Garrick had restored his plays to the very centre of the English stage. In 1785 Horace Walpole boasted that the English garden was now the true model for the world. William Wilberforce declared that it was a special privilege to be born an Englishman & foreigner repeatedly commented on English zelophobia Langford pp 306-10, 320

(B) Optimism: Apart from relatively brief periods the Golden Age appears, so far as the upper classes were concerned, to have been one of confidence & optimism See Watson p42. And there was reason to be optimistic. Apart from the War of American Independence, the nation won all its wars &, despite the loss of the American colonies, was successfully building a huge empire. The existing land-owning aristocracy was richer than ever before & a nouveau riche of merchants & manufacturers was emerging. Six hundred country houses were built during 1760-1800 Strong2000 p394. The aristocracy & the squirarchy in the main controlled a political system in which local government was all important. In the counties the magistrates were the key officials & were drawn from the landed gentry. Except in times of disturbance, magistrates were virtually uncontrolled by the central government. They were seldom removed & by 1800 served for life unless convicted of a crime. The situation in the larger urban areas was more complicated. Some were in the hands of an oligarchy (Leeds, Coventry, Bristol, Leicester, Liverpool etc) but others were relatively democratic (Norwich) Watson pp 42-3, 47, 49, WilliamsB pp 44, 49-50. [That the aristocracy & squirarchy had good reason for confidence is shown by the absence of any sustained call for parliamentary reform.] After the short period after the disastrous War of American Independence had been lost, there was a short period when there was some local agitation. In 1779, under the leadership of a Church of England clergyman, there was a movement in Yorkshire, in which the squirearchy were prominent, for more county members & for annual elections. The campaign ended in 1780 with the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots. These frightening disorders ended the agitation for parliamentary reform, & when in 1785 Pitt the younger put forward some modest changes in parliament he was defeated Watson pp 228-9, 234-9, 278. Early in 1792 the London Corresponding Society formed with adult suffrage as a required belief. It & similar bodies in large & some small centres of population attracted members who were largely drawn from the working & artisan classes ThompsonEP pp [???]. They were inspired by the French Revolution, although it had already turned sour, & by Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man which was the first clear assertion of the ultimate sovereignty of the people & the proposal that the general will should be revealed by means of a National Convention G&T pp 38-9, Paine pp xx, 376. Large & rowdy open-air meetings took place in many large towns. However, the radicals & would be revolutionaries were vigorously opposed by the supporters of Church & King, which led to rioting [& meant that the government could, if need be, draw on substantial support ThompsonEP [???]. Moreover, the threat to the authorities, even if it existed did not last long, if only because the French Terror (autumn 1793 to winter 1794) was so discouraging, & there was general patriotic unity now that Britain was under threat from France ThompsonEP p1, G&T pp 38-9, 53, 70. After the Napoleonic wars during the dark period of economic distress there was a brief period of agitation for parliamentary reform which culminated in the Peterloo massacre. However, by then the age of optimism had come to an end See the Age of Despair.

(C) Sensibility: As early as the 1740s politeness was under sustained attack as masking & facilitating vice (Hogarth’s satires & Samuel Richardson’s point of departure in Pamela & Clarissa, 1740-1 & 1748). Richardson promoted virtuous feeling as opposed to studied sophistication Solkin2015 p231. Later there was Sterne’s Sentimental Journey, 1768, & Henry Mackenzie’s The Man of Feeling, 1771 Solkin2015 p231. Here a man dies of emotion when finally declaring his feelings for young woman). Sensibility connoted intense emotional responsiveness to beauty & sublimity in nature & art Abrams6 pp 190-1. It was thought sensibility was prevalent among women & the uncorrupted peasantry Solkin2015 p231. Jane Austen’s Sense & Sensibility, which was begun in 1797 & published in 1811, marks the decline of the fashion for sensibility Abrams6 p192.

(D) Art Appreciation: The Golden Age was a period of increasing artistic sophistication. This was a much-needed development. In 1715 Jonathan Richardson complained about the remarkable dearth of lovers & connoisseurs of painting. Patrons even seem to have been unable to recognise a likeness. Kneller could barely keep his temper when some parents who were coming to see a portrait of their son were unable to recognise him Stewart p8. The art of looking & the love of painting owed much to the Grand Tour by young aristocrats. During 1713-39, which was a peaceful period, it became the fashion for them to visit Italy & France in order to study art treasures etc; & even succeeding wars did not seriously interfere with the practice WilliamsB p403. Grand tourism reached new heights after the Peace of Paris in 1763, with trips lasting up to five years. The practice embraced a remarkably wide social spectrum & was essentially a British phenomenon. Although many Grand Tourists devoted themselves to wine & women, their foreign experience was to transform a substantial part of the British upper class into collectors & connoisseurs Strong2000 pp 385, 394-401. One sign of transformation was the Society of Dilettanti which began in 1732 as a social & drinking club for young noblemen who had been to Italy but turned to serious support for the arts, including an abortive attempt to establish a British academy Grove28 p924, OxDicArt. The change that was taking place within the upper reaches of British society is also shown by the great private picture collection that were now being built up. By the middle of the 18^th century very fine collections had been assembled LeckyHofE2 p165.

(E) Status of the Gentry: The growing appreciation of art was accompanied by a remarkable change in how country gentlemen were perceived. During the early part of the 18^th century, they were regarded as boorish oafs. They had crude manners & were primarily interested in sport. By the end of the century, [although still keen sportsmen], they were being seen as educated, philanthropic, & well-mannered S-T p61. Although progress was uneven, landowners were now far more preoccupied with agricultural improvement. A veritable agricultural revolution was in progress. The most obvious & celebrated innovation was the cultivation of turnips. [Source]. The previous animosity between Whig aristocrats & Tory squires decreased. Both faced the problems caused by rural poverty &, in the West Midlands & North were challenged by the new industrialists. Aristocrats started attending the more important Quarter Sessions & in Lancashire manufacturers were deliberately excluded from bench Plumb pp 84-5, Strong2000 p394. Conservative writers led by the Rev John Brown in 1757-8 attacked the evils & corrupting effect of trade, & called on the aristocracy to re-assert themselves Solkin1982 pp 56-8. The period from 1750 to 1790 was nevertheless a continuing golden age for the aristocracy: an ancient regime of extravagance & self-indulgence with heightened class consciousness Strong2000 p394.

(F) Status of Painters: [The growing sophistication of the picture buying upper class led to a change in the status of the artist & this, in turn, meant that the painter now had greater freedom. Hitherto those commissioning portraits usually made the key decision relying on the many works or engravings to be seen. [Hence] the numerous portraits of female sitters in the late 1730s & 40s depicted in Van Dyke costume or modelled on Rubens’ portrait Helena Fourment (then attributed to Van Dyke) Solkin2015 p131. In the earlier part of the 18^th century British artists, an obscure & struggling confraternity, were accorded little respect. By 1760 their social position had much improved WilliamsB p409. It was partly due to the sale of engravings which was a growth market. It was this that provided Hogarth with financial security & fame, making him the first English painter no longer largely reliant on patronage Vaughan1999 p9, BurkeJ pp159-60. [The greatly improved status which leading artists came to enjoy was ratified & reinforced by] the creation of the Royal Academy in 1768 with Reynolds as its President OxDicArt . The regard with which he was held gave him latitude as to how his clients were to be painted Hallett p100.

(G) Benevolence & the Moral Sense: By the advent of the British Golden Age the educated classes had little to fear from a previously vengeful & arbitrary God & the Devil had been displaced. There was still however the problem of the selfish man. He had been starkly posed by Thomas Hobbes who asserted that humans were solely motivated by a self-interested & egoistic concern with their own pleasures & pain. This view had already been challenged by those who believed in a moral conscience, & in particular by Hutchenson. He believed that we have a “moral sense” which is analogous to that of vision. Just as we can distinguish between colours, so we can identify right & wrong. However, it was not until Bishop Butler’s Fifteen Sermons, 1726, that there was a full & readily comprehensible refutation of the Hobbesian view. He pointed out that although all our impulses are our own it does not follow that they are all egoistical in the sense of involving some change in condition of person who has them. Nor, because the satisfaction of an impulse gives me pleasure, does it follow that this was necessarily my aim. Where the impulse is motivated by benevolence the aim precedes the pleasure. Butler thought that benevolence was a natural impulse & believed in the existence of conscience, as shown by the use of words, like duty, which have a moral meaning Joad1947 pp 178-95. [In the case of benevolence, he might also have evidenced the expression of sympathy.]

(H) Condition & Concern for the Poor: [Although the lower orders became more prosperous during the golden age the condition of both the town poor & agricultural workers remained extremely low.] They were riotous, as the Porteous Riots of 1737 & intermittent outbreaks up to the end of the period demonstrate WilliamsB p278, LeckyHofEng2 p118, ThompsonEP pp 66-7. They were also racist. This was a repeated complaint by visiting foreigners. In Spitalfields there were riots against Irish weavers & the Drury Lane theatre was sacked in 1755 because Garrick employed French dancers Langford p320, LeckyHofEng2 p113. As the Gordon riots showed, the poor were also rabidly anti-Catholic, & they were drunken, ill-disciplined & illiterate. Around 1750 about third of men were unable to even sign their names Langford p91. Moreover, they were dirty & presumably smelly. The rich were by modern standards unclean but the poor were very much dirtier. Francis Place recalled that among the lower middle & lower classes bed sheets were changed three times a year at most. Women wore stays & petticoats that were never washed. The children of tradesmen all had lice in their hair & the grown-ups were not free of them. It was not until the spread of easily washable clothes in the early 19^th century that conditions changed Stone1979 pp 304-7. However, as a rule & in normal times the poor were ignored & regarded as a race apart WilliamsB p129. By the first half of the 18^th century, it was generally accepted that the universe was a continuous ladder of creatures from worm to seraph Willey p48.

There was a prevalent belief that the 18^th century’s hierarchical society conformed to a divine plan & this was reflected in sermons & philosophic speculation Solkin1982 p26. Soame Jenyns argued (1757) that subordination was a feature of the universe & that its various ranks & orders were probably mutually supporting Barrell pp. Samuel Johnson believed that a society that was properly organised into ranks & orders would be conducive to social happiness Laski p162, Willey p48. [The belief that social hierarchy was divinely ordained, although increasingly challenged,] persisted, as shown by the hymn All Things Bright & Beautiful until about 1850 Wikip for uncensored version. Defoe in Giving Arms No Charity, c1704, attributed poverty largely to the habits of vagrancy, drunkenness & extravagance LeckyHofEng2 p208. That the Poor Law did not lead to better results was a source of wonder; in an official report of 1697 on pauperism John Locke, who was a charitable man, attributed its growth, not to lack of demand for labour, but to relaxed discipline & corruption of manners Eden pp xvi-xvii, 38, ClarkG pp 52-3. Although poverty was ascribed to various causes, the most usual were depravity & idleness Eden pxvi.

The condition of the poor was however a matter of increasing concern. During the period 1714-60 there were some prominent philanthropists: Coram’s Foundling Hospital received a royal charter in 1739 charter & in 1745 a permanent building was erected. There was also Oglethorpe’s inquiry into debtors’ prisons, the resettlement of debtors in Georgia, Hanway’s charitable institutions, & Admiral Vernon’s Nacton House of Industry in Suffolk & similar ventures elsewhere WilliamsB pp 129, 138-9. Around 1750 there was a growth of a new humanitarianism reflected variously in inquiries into social conditions, the mushrooming of philanthropic societies, improved attitudes to child upbringing, & opposition to cruelty to animals. Between Richardson’s Pamela (1740) & Sterne’s Tristam Shandy (1760) there was the advent of the novel concerned with lives & psychology of actual human beings George1931 pp 65-74. In 1769 the dispensary movement began in London. These were charitable centres where the poor could attend for advice & free drugs, receive home visits, if necessary, & after 1798 be vaccinated. This led to the spread of knowledge about hygiene among the poor & their conditions & behaviour among the rich George1925 pp 62-3, Trevelyan1942 p345.

From the 1790s there was an evangelical revival within the Church of England which also contributed to the growth of philanthropy. In 1789 Wilberforce on a visit on a visit to the Cheddar Gorge, was horrified by the poverty & squalor of the neighbourhood. He urged Hannah More to attempt it moral reclamation Hilton p175, Hammonds1975 pp Evangelical religion stressed the duty of private benevolence involving visits to the poor, the teaching of the Bible, & the giving of advice, alms & soup, & the founding of societies like the Society for Bettering Condition of Poor in 1796 Hammonds1917 p72. The most striking evidence of the upper-class concern with the welfare of the poor came in with the advent of the Speenhamland system. The war with France [& bad harvests] had led to the cost of living rising more rapidly than wages & consequent distress. In 1795 the Berkshire justices met at Speenhamland & decided that, in the interests of humanity & in order to prevent rioting, it was necessary to make up the pay of those below a specified level with money from the poor rate. This policy was subsequently adopted in numerous other counties outside the south east & far north Watson pp 525-8.

Characteristics, General

Works were serious & high minded but not sublimely Romantic. Sometimes they were humorous but not deliberately comic, & sometimes erotic, although not bawdy.

Characteristics & Development of Portraiture

Prior to the Golden Age much of the painting in Britain, apart from that by visiting foreign artists, was pedestrian. The great bulk of the portraiture took the form of rather unexciting likenesses in standard compositional patterns & postures Solkin2015 p86. If one of Kneller’s subjects were suddenly to start speaking this would be greeted by the viewer with a surprise that would not arise if the portrait were by Ramsey, Hogarth, [Gainsborough or Reynolds]. Ramsay [& the other Golden Age masters] painted what has been described as the “speaking likeness”. He recognised that it was necessary to touch the feelings of the viewer Smart pp 55, 108. Portraits were also more impressive because they were larger, often being full-length & life-size. The late 1730s saw the return of the grand portrait to Britain Vaughan1999 p73. Previously grand portraiture like Jonathan Richardson the Elder’s Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, 1725. Kneller’s portraits were sober, like the patrician Whigs he painted, Vaughan1999 pp 72, 73. The leading Golden Age portrait painters were not only first rate but those they portrayed were more dynamic figures, or at least were so portrayed. Reynolds portraits of military figures are a case in point. The distance between the sitter & the viewer was reduced because of a new emphasis on the personality of the subject & hence the greater emotional involvement of the viewer. They were designed to impress Hallett pp 167, 69-80, Vaughan1999 p68. [Sitters typically displayed grace & authority. This was indicated by their silken & gorgeous clothes; by background columns; by serious facial expressions, with men who almost never smiled & women who only did so occasionally; & by the placing of women & sometimes men in classical roles. Sensibility was indicated by intimate motherhood. Earlier in the century mothers had usually been shown in family grouping & posed rather stiffly with their offspring. Sensibility was also shown by depictions of companionate & binding marriage; by acts of charity & benevolence; & by images of grief-stricken individuals Solkin2015 pp 233-8. Family groups in the late 18^th century were no longer stiffly & formally posed but with children in postures & attitudes indicating their friendly & playful association with their parents as in Reynolds, Zoffany, Copley etc Stone1979 p259. Sitters displayed good sense & association with the intellectual & moral ideals of their age Vaughan1999 p68. It is notable that in France prior to the Revolution there was no great age in portraiture. Duplessis who was the Louis XVI’s official painter was blandly & stiffly academic & other portrait painters were no better. The exceptions were Vigge-Lebrun & Labille-Guiard who were creditable painters, [but they were no match for Reynolds & Gainsborough. It was not until the Revolution that French portraiture flourished under David] Levey&K pp185-6

Characteristics & Development of Landscapes & Rural Genre

This almost always included figures & typically shows a seemingly stable & unified society Barrell pp 5, 17. The rural poor are usually idealised by Gainsborough, Wheatley etc Barrell p6; in the early 18^th century there was no indigenous England pastoral painting & only occasionally, & in the background, do manual workers appear in rural topographical paintings Barrell p9. When later they occur in landscapes & paintings of rural life, they are no longer the idle shepherds of French & Italian pastoral-Arcadia but more realistic & ragged though remaining inexplicably cheerful Barrell pp 10, 15-6; from about 1750 agricultural workers are shown as honest & laborious &, only shown as relaxing in the evening after a hard day’s work, when having a meal break during harvesting, or on their way to a post-harvest feast Barrell p21

Characteristics of Late Genre

In 1809 an article in Bell’s Weekly Messenger, almost certainly by Francis Holt, identified a new British style based on the Dutch masters’ faithful imitation, but one now elevated & dignified by humour & sentiment into an epic of common life Solkin2008 p37. Wilkie’s The Cut Finger, 1809, combined humour & sentiment, inviting us to both laugh at the boy’s over-reaction & sympathise at his distress. The figures are grouped round the central dramatic action in order to enhance what would otherwise be a commonplace event Solkin2008 p67. In this painting, & in work by other artists, the detail is orchestrated into a concentrated & coherent moral narrative. This contrasts with Adraien Brouwer’s comic 17^th century Dutch painting The Village Doctor & it is one of the most important ways in which the new English school differs from the Low Country genre of the 17^th century. Another important innovation by Wilkie was the merger of genre & history painting: everyday events in the lives of common people were now given an elevated importance which provided those involved with a new importance Solkin 2008 pp 34, 55-62, 68-77. This began with his Village Politicians, 1806, which depicts a group of villagers having a political discussion at the time of the French Revolution. Although the scene is treated with humour great events now obtrude into the everyday life of the common people18Solkin2008 pp 6-10. [Wilkie then went on to produce a series of works in which he broadened the scope & depth of genre painting.] Distraining for Rent, 1815, is another painting in which current events, here in the form of agricultural collapse, had an impact on ordinary people. More important, it is not a broad-brush depiction of those who are poor but a particular & hence more striking instance of hardship. This quickly became evident when the painting was wrongly viewed as subversive attack on landlords Errington pp 602 . Wilkie viewed the poor with sympathy but during 1807-8Thomas Heapy had painted a number of works which showed the lower classes in a most unfavourable light. At best they were foolish & at worst they were robbers & bullies. His paintings, which contrasted sharply with Gainsborough’s cottage door works, were heavily criticised & Heapy largely switched to more conventional topics Solkin2008 pp 79-103. However, William Mulready painted a series of works which depict youthful misbehaviour in school & out, beginning with Idle Boys in 1815 Solkin2008 pp 119-39. Whatever else this rich mixture of brilliantly executed paintings may or not indicate about the contemporary society they certainly show that genre painting during late Georgian Britain qualifies as Golden Age See Solkin2008 pp

Paintings DisplayingSensibility

A wide range of works reflect this cult. They include not only the illustrations & prints depicting scenes from Richardson’s Pamela by Hayman, Gravelot & Highmore but also the source paintings by the latter artist. These were followed by numerous paintings where the scene depicts the sensibility of those involves or elicits feelings of sensibility by the viewer. They include military scenes & men by Hayman, West, Copley & Penny; historical works by Northcote; by pastoral paintings by Gainsborough & de Loutherbourg; & genre by Wright of Derby. There was also a notable growth in portrait works in which men, women & children display their feelings & sensibility Solkin2015 pp 110-11, 231-44.

Painters: Beechey; Copley; Cotes; Dance; Gainsborough; Heapey; Hogarth; Hone; Hoppner; Hudson; Knapton; Lawrence; Mulready; Northcote; Opie; Penny; Ramsay; Raeburn; Reynolds; Stubbs; Romney; West; Wilkie, Wilson; Wright (sometimes) Waterhouse1953; Vaughan1999; Honour1968 p168, Solkin 2008

BYZANTINE PAINTING (0)

See also Section 3 Icons, & Icon-Type Painting in the Virgin Mary, & entry Madonnero in Section 5

Historiography: The older school of Classical archaeologists were loath to recognise the art of the Byzantine world as a valid field for study. However, there was resurgence in Byzantine studies at the end of the 19^th & the beginning of the 20^th centuries. The leading figures were Joseph Strzygowski, whose ideas aroused furious debate, & Gabriel Millet who undertook pioneering study on the spot. From the early 1930s the quality of Byzantine art was fully recognised, & this now including its latter stages, due to Milet’s work DAH, Rice1954 p11

Background:

(a) Political: Between 324 & 330 the initial construction of Constantinople took place & in 402 Ravenna was developed as a capital. In 429-31 Africa was conquered by vandals. However, in 533 & 554 Africa, Sicily & Italy were reconquered under Justinian the Great who reigned during 527-65. The advances in the West diverted attention from a parlous military situation at home. Byzantium was sapped by the great plague of 542 & embezzlement by tax gatherers. The expansionary period was followed by severe reverses until around 750. They included the invasion of Italy by the Lombards (568); the invasion of the Balkans by the Slavs & Avars (568-628); the capture of Jerusalem (614), the Arab conquest of Syria, Palestine & North Africa (634-698); the capture of Ravenna by the Lombards (751); & the fall of Crete & Sicily to the Arabs Cormack pp 62, 224-6, Fisher pp 132-3. Constantinople itself was under blockade (674-8) & siege (717-8) Cormack p62. Between 875 & 1017 there was a period of recovery with an offensive in the East, reconquests in Italy, Sicily & Crete, & expansion under Basil II (976-1025) Cormack p226. Thereafter it was more or less downhill all the way until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 RiceDT p24. Already by the time of the first Crusade Byzantium consisted only of European Turkey & the coast area of Asiatic Turkey, together with Greece, the region north to the Danube, Crete & Cyprus Fisher pp 228, 230.

(b) Influence: The geographical extent of the Byzantine Empire gives a misleading impression of its importance. Constantinople was the hub of the extensive trade with the east. Only in the last phase before to its fall (1261-1453) did prosperity ebb & the formerly lavish imperial patronage cease RiceDT p28. Considerable parts of Italy, as well as Russia, were under Byzantine cultural influence. This was true of Venice & of territory that had been lost including Crete, Cyprus, Sicily & southern Italy RiceDT pp 22-6. Moreover, Russia was converted to Orthodoxy in 988 & art of an essentially Byzantine type survived there until Peter the Great Cormack p226, RiceDT p14.

(c) Orthodox Religion: In the Catholic West emphasis was placed on the bondage of sin that resulted from the Fall, with Christ’s death being seen as an act of forgiveness. In the East Christ’s death was viewed as a victory over the powers of darkness which, through the Holy Spirit, regenerated mankind. Catholicism was profoundly sceptical about the world & its temptations (vide St Augustine) whereas Orthodoxy looked forward to the transformation of matter into the obedient instrument of the Spirit. Confidence in the goodness of matter inspired the eastern church to make generous use of material elements in the administration of their sacraments Zaehner pp 83, 86-7. Orthodoxy was a religion of consolation & comfort, in which the priest at confession was not judge but witness. It was characterised by ritual, the veneration icons & a mystical communion with the divine Zachner p87, Cormack pp 2-3. The glorious & happy services of the Byzantine Empire led the Russian commission of enquiry to recommend that Vladimir should adopt this form of religion Fisher pp 376-7. [The devil, hell & martyrdom play a minor part in Orthodox religion &, because the Fall is not stressed, sexual desire is not viewed askance. The clergy was not celibate, except for bishops.]

(c) Development: In 325 the Council of Nicea proclaimed the divinity of Christ & in 431 the Council of Ephesus proclaimed Mary the mother of God. The Orthodox theory or images was developed & St John of Damascus (c675-749) who declared that although an icon should have recognisable characteristics it must not be “like its prototype in every way”. Icons were widely introduced during the troubled period following Justinian, though it has been denied that this was a straight response to crisis. The Trullan Synod of 692 declared that henceforth Christ must be represented as human & not as a lamb. Between 726 & 842, except for an interval during 787-815, there was a period of iconoclasm, launched by Leo the Isaurian. He found the empire demoralized, a prey to superstition, & decided that the cult of images was to blame Grove9 p622, Cormack pp 66, 69, 224-6, Murrays1996 pp 84-5. Figural artworks were forbidden in churches & there was widespread destruction of earlier work. However, in secular art representation of the human form was still permitted RiceDT p20. Although iconoclasm ended it had a continuing austere influence in the 9^th & 10^th centuries Murrays1996 p81. A council at Nicea decreed that the composition of figures was to be according to the law & tradition of the church, and was no concern of the painter Eimerl p36

Influences: Ancient writers had written about the gods dwelling inside their images & giving statues the power of miracle-working & healing Cormack p77. [The Roman Empire provided a rich heritage of religious art] on which early Christians were able to draw. This included the mosaics & wall painting of the Jews Grove9 pp 517, 562. The peacock was a symbol that was appropriated & the Good Shepherd was based on pagan representations of a man bringing offerings to an altar Grove9 p517. The Persians & other eastern peoples used bright colours & decorative motifs & Byzantine artists followed suit as a way of achieving self-expression Eimerl p36

Imagery: During the period 565-725 the icon became popular, & until the 7^th century Christ was shown living on the Cross with open eyes, not dead. The Anastasis (Greek for Resurrection) became a new subject with Christ releasing Adam, Eve & the righteous from hell, & taking them to heaven on the third day. This contrasted with the typical Catholic depiction in which there was an ascent to heaven Cormack p66.

Characteristics: Byzantine art has, according to Talbot Rice, “something indefinite, something unrealisable about it; it seeks for the infinite rather than the finite” RiceDT1954 p15. Robin Cormack refers to the timelessness of Byzantine art Cormack p3. Byzantine paintings & mosaics were overwhelmingly religiously inspired because of the prevalence of icons & because even palaces were regarded as sacred Cormack pp 2, 5, 66. Although icons differ widely, they all possess naturalistic features, such as hairstyle & eyes. Other realistic elements, including space, light, stance & even the relative size of figures, are deliberately disregarded. Moreover, there is considerable stylisation: eyes are enlarged & staring in a frontal & statuesque pose. In Crucifixions the musculature of Christ’s abdomen is schematised & red & white lines symbolise flowing blood & water. Drapery is stiff. Hence the figures, while resembling the earthly world, seem to reflect one that is mystical & it is this tension that provides icons with their spiritual force Grove9 pp 621-30 but especially p622; Eimerl pp 59, 68 etc. In Crucifixions of the triumphant type Christ wears a long Columbium, which is a tunic, often with long sleeves, whereas in the Roman form he is nude Murrays1996 pp 85, 125. Early mosaics have a white, & then blue, ground but in the 6^th century it became almost invariably gold Murrays1996 p78

Phases: There were two periods of Renaissance in Byzantine art after it first flowering: at the end of the 9^th century, & again in the 12^th RiceDT pp, 14, 266-7. (i) The first Renaissance was marked by a turning back to the models of the Classical world & by a new spirit of adventure & experiment RiceDT p14 (ii) The 12^th century witnessed a new interest in humanism & personality similar to that in Italy under Cimabue & Giotto in Italy although it was at least 150 years earlier. Classic examples of such Byzantine work are to be found in the church of St Panteleimon at Nerez in Macedonia. They date from 1164 & must have been the work of an artist from or in close contact with Constantinople. These fine wall paintings are gentle, tender & lay a new stress on personal emotion & feeling that was unknown to previous sublime but unworldly Byzantine art RiceDT pp 266-68. However, paintings that showed no hint of the new approach continued to be painted. They were often magnificent but gradually tended to become academic RiceDT p270. During the Byzantine last phase owing to the lack of imperial patronage & ebbing prosperity painted mosaics largely gave way to painted walls, & panel paintings took the place of precious enamels. This period witnessed a Byzantine Renaissance in painting RiceDT pp 28, 30

CLASSICISM IN THE BAROQUE ERA (11)

See also Academies of France & S. Luke, Bellori, De Piles, Ideal Landscape.

Historiography: This is sometimes treated as a branch of the Baroque Vlieghe p85. However, a more or less distinct concept is used by modern authorities and implicitly by Wolfflin Waterhouse1962 pp 55-62, Kitson1966 Ch 3, Wolfflin1915 p105. The grouping is sometimes called Italianate or simply classicism Fuchs p136, Haak p303, MB pp 15, 27. Sometimes it is termed Picturesque because 18^th century amateurs so described effects that reminded them of paintings by Claude etc Wilenski pp 101-22. The style was distinguished from Baroque during the 17^th century in the academic debates & lectures in Rome & Paris. It was recognised by Bellori, & later Reynolds, as an aspect of “the grand style” OxCompArt. Dutch art is usually passed over by Baroque & Classical theorists because of not fitting into their schema Price p140.

Background: There was a passionate curiosity about Antiquity in Poussin’s time but this was replaced by quasi-resentment. In late 17^th century Paris, it became a rival to be surpassed. There was an erosion of belief in the traditional subject-matter of history painting but painters still felt obliged to paint it. To cover up their lack of commitment painters resorted to false emotionalism, unconvincing action & empty faces as in Corneill & Louis Boullogne the Younger, La Fosse, Antoine Coypel; although Jouvenet was an exception. Lebrun’s reduction of expressions to a repertoire of passions was unhelpful Allen pp 189-98

Development: The foundations for 17^th century Classicism were laid by Annibale Carracci in The Choice of Hercules, 1595-97, which he painted soon after he moved from Bologna to Rome. In the Farnese Ceiling there was a perfect fusion of classical & Baroque elements. However, between 1610 & 1620 there was a classical reaction against the Baroque, especially by the Carracci pupils in Rome. The most notable of these was Domenichino who was an exponent of ideal landscape & whose St Celia frescoes of 1613-4 are more rigidly classical than his previous work. His figures are larger, are clearly individualised, their gestures are studied and some figures are directly derived from classical statues Kitson1966 pp71-2, OxDicArt, Wittkower1973 p80 –1. The distinguishing features of Classical painting were clarified in the debates at the Academy of St Luke on the rival merits of the Baroque & classical styles during the 1630s. Andrea Sacchi, who was the leading classicist in Rome during the mid-17^th century argued that for maximum impact a picture should only contain a few figures in opposition to the Baroque Cortona who aimed at a splendid & lively general effect in order to provoke marvel & surprise Waterhouse1962 pp 55, 58, OxDicArt.

During the latter 1620s Poussin began painting Classical figurative works such as The Death of Adonis & continued to do so for the rest of his life Allen pp 57-8, etc. Together with Claude he also painted Ideal Landscape See OxDicArt & Section 3 under Landscape. Although Poussin & Claude were the most notable & obvious Classical painters during the Baroque era, they were by no means alone. Around1650 Philippe de Champagne in France painted works of a severe type that can be described as Classical OxDicArt, Allen pp148-9, 151. There was a somewhat surprising group of Dutch Classicists & Dutch Italianates in a country celebrated for Realism See Section 9

Characteristics:

(a) A preoccupation with ideal form & eloquence of expression & gesture, though this is also true of Baroque art Kitson1966 p71.

(b) Clarity, harmony & balance are stressed Kitson1966 p71.

(c) Colour is inferior to form Kitson 1966 p71 .

(d) This is an art that certainly from Poussin appeals more to the mind than to the senses Kitson1966 p71.

(e) There are relatively few figures & they are spaced out, though during the 1640s Baroque art moved in this direction Kitson1966 p73.

(f) History painting was taken seriously Allen p52.

(g) There is a general economy of expression with an absence of figures bending, leaning back, turning, or truncated by the side of the picture or by other figures Allen pp 107-8.

(h) Figures are arranged in the foreground Allen pp 107-8.

(i) Diagonals are avoided Allen pp 52, 107-8.

(j) Landscape is idyllic, nostalgic & poetic. It is bathed in soft & golden light, & often features leisurely shepherds. [They are not specific views.] Fuchs pp 236-8;

(k) [Above all, there is calm & serenity in contrast to Baroque restless, exuberance & sexy nudes.

It must however be said that these characteristics do not always apply for each & every painting by a classical painter.] For instance, Poussin’s paintings of Joshua’s victories over the Amalekites & over the Amorites display restless exuberance Z&S pp 44-5, 50-1

Oeuvre: Classical artists such as Domenichino & Saachi tended to have difficulties with invention & produced little whereas Baroque artists were prolific. Poussin was an exception because he withdrew from producing big decorative paintings Allen pp 54-5

Painters:

(a) France: Blanchard (later); Bourdon (later); de La Hyre; Lebrun, Le Sueur; Mignard; Perrier (late); Poerson (later); Poussin; Jacques Stella Blunt1954 pp 171-2; 202-3, 223, 242, 244, Allen pp 95-96, 98,107-10, 116; L&L [Revise]

(b) Italy: Albani; [Annibale Carracci], Cignani; Domenichino; Franceschini; Guido Cagnacci, Maratta; Sacci; Sassoferrato/Salvi Waterhouse1962 pp 15, 55, 61, 76-81, L&L, NGArt1986pp 366, 372, 412, 450;

(c) Belgium: van den Hoecke; van Lint; Erasmus Quillinus II Vlieghe pp 85-88;

(d) The Netherlands’ Italianate Landscape: Jan Asselijn; Nicolaes Berchem; Andries & Jan Both; Albert Cuyp; Bor; De Lairesse; Drost?; Adam Pynacker; Schalcken (late); Adrian Van Der Werff; Van Poelenburgh Fuchs pp 136-8; Haak pp 303, 318, 369; Wilenski pp 101-122, L&L

DECORATIVE & PATTERN PAINTING, LATE 19^TH CENTURY & AFTER: (37)

Term: It I my own & refers to a Movement that arose during the latter part of the 19^th century in which decoration & pattern take pride of place. In most previous painting formal representational & emotional values had overwhelmed decoration & pattern. Here, as in Art Nouveau to which this type of painting is closely related, decoration & pattern are pre-eminent Masini pp12-3. Moreover, the viewer is not being invited to look through the painting & thereby discover what message the painter is trying to convey. These works must in particular be distinguished from contemporaneous Symbolist works. In Decoration & Pattern Painting there is no need to probe below the painted surface. If the artist has done his job, it will suffice & give delight. The words have been carefully chosen. Although there is no need to look below the surface it is always possible to try. If the painting contains figures one can always ask oneself what they are doing & what is their relationship. Moreover, not all Decorative & Pattern paintings are of a pure type.

The Movement has been called Decorative & Pattern Painting & not Decoration & Pattern Painting. This is because the word decoration is so intimately associated with Symbolist painting & decoration is & was regarded as one of its defining features See Symbolism in this Section. The Nabis are generally treated as part of the Symbolist Movement e.g., Lucie-S1972 pp 96-105. However, it is clear that the Nabis painters & their paintings differed widely & some of them of do not belong in Symbolism. This is yet another example of the danger of trying to fit customary & heterogeneous artistic groupings into meaningful artistic movements.

Development: Art of a similar type dates back to William Blake & includes some works by Holman Hunt. However, the work of the Adolphe Monticelli was much closer to that of Decorative & Pattern Painting & he can be seen as an influential precursor. He appears to have had a direct influence on the work of Edward Atkinson Hornell & George Henry who were Glasgow Boys. Around 1886 they began painting dense woodland scenes. Unlike domestic intimate works they were not primarily figure paintings but enclosed & inward turned woodland scenes. They, like the Nabis painter Vuillard, produced paintings for which the term intimate can be extended. To an event greater extent than Nabis paintings they produce a somewhat claustrophobic effect Masini pp 17-9, 23, Barringer pp120, 124-5, 128-9, Billcliffe pp 193-5, 207, 211, 218, 222, 235-8. In 1888 Paul Serusir, with the encouragement of Gauguin, painted his tiny landscape The Talisman, which was the first well known work from the new Movement, albeit one that [despite a total absence of symbolic content] has [wrongly] been treated as a Symbolist painting LucieS1972 pp 96-7. The six panel paintings of women at work & play painted in 1892 by Vuillard were another important landmark. They were essentially decorative, contained works that were strikingly patterned, & were the first in his series of great commissions each of which comprised a number of works Groom pp 19-25 etc,

Background: There was a massive revival of graphic art during the latter part of the 19^th century. This was prompted by improved colour-printing processes, as used in advertising, posters & bottle labels, [& was also due to the Arts & Crafts Movement.] These improvements were made by Louis Cheret who by refining chromolithography enabled advertisements to be printed in multiple, graduated tones & colours. Painters who following on from Cheret now employed colour lithography to produce posters. They included, Bonnard, Toulouse-Lautrec & Vuillard Groom p10, Denvir p80, Grove25 p346, OxDicMod. Another potent influence was Japanese painting. Commodore Perry’s gunships opened up trade with Japan in 1854, although it was sometime before there was a widespread interest in Japanese culture & painting. A crucial development was a Parisian shop that was opened in the late 1870s by Samuel Bing; a German-born expert on Japanese art who had who travelled to the Far East, His shop became a focal point for those interested in Japanese painting. Van Gogh, for instance, spent hours in Bing’s shop &, with his brother Theo, arranged an exhibition of Japanese prints. This was but one of a series of exhibitions of Japanese prints & paintings Denvir pp 73-6, Oxford Reference, Wikip. George Henry & Hornell even made a trip to Japan in 1893 & painted works in a highly decorative & patterned manner Hardie pp 105-6, Billcliffe pp 258-60, 262.

Decoration became a key concept & the word a parrot cry. The movement was led by the museum administrator Roger Marx & the Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs. This was set up in 1882 to promote an artistic culture that would marry beauty & utility, & was a response to the desire of manufacturers far closer links between art, industry & culture Oxford Reference. At this time there was a widespread shift to decorative art both among theorists & practitioners. In painting it was an aspect of the reaction against the Impressionists who were primarily concerned with depicting the external world & capturing the fleeting effects of light Jaland p11

If painters did not have this goal what was their aim? The answer, as in all post-Impressionist painting, was that painting was an original & creative activity with its own rules & requirements Jalard p11. It was the embodiment & presentation of the aesthetic feelings & emotions of the painter through colour, line & surface. Although external reality might be the source for these feelings, it was the emotions themselves that were the key element. This may be envisaged as a shift from the outside world as seen by the eye to the image on the retina of the eye. In other words, vision was now more subjective & less objective. According to the critic Gorges-Albert Aurier, art was necessarily subjective & decorative. It was by means of paintings that were a form of decoration that the next stage of artistic progress was to be brought about. Although in fact this was seen by Denis, Serusier & Bernard as a return to the ideals of the Old Masters in what was termed Neo-Traditionalism WalkerAG pp 31, 34, 38-40, Jalard pp 147-8, 179, Groom p14-5.

Patronage: [Decorative & Pattern paintings were purchased by a section of the haut bourgeoisie. Many of them had made their money in commerce, banking & industry, they lived in grand houses in the new boulevards in Paris] or in the Ringstrasse area in Vienna. They included the Nathanson family who were Vuillard’s great patrons, & in Vienna the Knips, Blochs, Wittgenstein’s, Primavesis, Hennerbergs, Gallias & Lederer’s. In Brussels Klimt decorated a Palace for the industrialist Adolphe Stockiet Hodge2014 pp 23, 27.

Characteristics: Most of these have already been mentioned & can be summed up as follows:

(a) Paintings often have a flat appearance. There is certainly an absence of the linear perspective with a vanishing point.
(b) Pictures tend to be inward turned & self-contained. They do not appear to be part of a larger scene of which the painting is merely a part. There are no big, empty skies but on the contrary the design usually occupies most of the space & many paintings are of an all-over type. Interior scenes are intimate but sometimes cluttered & somewhat claustrophobic as in the work of Bonnard.
(c) The paintwork & facture tend to be of an extreme type. Either the paintwork is thinnish or it is heavy & often crusted. This is due to the liberal use of impasto or to repeated coats of distemper.]
(d) Colours also tend to be of an extreme type. They are either bold & strident or they are washed out, & sometimes reminiscent of twice boiled cabbage as, dare one say it, in some paintings by Bonnard. Maurice Denis also used very pale colours.
(e) Paint is often applied in blobs, patches or stripes. Where this is the case colour contrasts are often used to produce very striking effects as in Vuillard’s painting The Striped Blouse, 1895 Groom p73.
(f) The paintings often have an air of mystery: figures are absorbed into their backgrounds; it is not clear what they are doing or whether they are friendly or hostile. They often appear self-absorbed or their faces are mask-like as in Modigliani’s nudes D&G p336
(g) Women are more frequent than men. The predominance of women in the art of Vuillard, other Nabis painters, [& Toulouse-Lautrec] was no accident: women have a crucial role in the plays of Ibsen & Strindberg Groom pp 57-8.

Painters:

(a) France: Emile Bernard, Maurice Denis (non-religious works), Bonnard, Matisse, Modigliani, Vuillard
(b) Netherlands: Verkade
(c) Austria: Klimt
(d) Hungary: Rippi-Ronai
(e) Great Britain: Vanessa Bell, David Gauld, Duncan Grant, George Henry, Edward Atkinson Honell Billcliffe pp 154, 182, 211, 218-9, 222-3, 242-3, 246, 250-1; Hardie pp106, 163, Watney Pl 3-5, 15-6, 20-2, 26, 30-6, 38-43, 45-6, 48-50, 54-6, 58-62.
(f) Maurice Prendergast

[NB This is a provisional list]

ELOQUENT PAINTING IN SPAIN, 1600-50 (8)

Term: It has been recognised ever since Palomino in 1724 that there was during the 17^th century a national style that was unornamental & naturalistic. Jonathan Brown in his authority’s study refers to, “The stern, ascetic style of the first half of the century, with its unremitting realism, sombre colours, & strong chiaroscuro” BrownJ p198. [Unfortunately, the use of the term Baroque as a catch-all category, & the desire to place Spanish art within a European context, has obscured the distinctive quality of its painting until the advent of the Baroque style around 1650] See Moffitt p126 etc for an over extended use of the term Baroque. [Eloquent is a better team than naturalistic for the art in question is both persuasive & movingly expressive].

Context: From the 16^th century & mysticism was a potent influence in Spain, the great figures being St Theresa, St John of the Cross & Louis Ponce de Leon. St Theresa had combined energy & organising ability with a belief in mystical union of the soul with God. However, in the 17^th century mysticism degenerated into a quietist belief in the complete absorption of the soul & the divine Davies pp 290-4. Mystical beliefs took an extreme form in which a vision was not only seen by the visionary but was apparent to others. Fray Andres Salmeron, an Hieronymite monk, was renowned for his trance-like periods of meditation. According to his biographer, an Hieronymite scholar, when Salmeron was eating in the refectory a divine light suddenly shone upon his face giving it celestial clarity which those around him likened to a second sun. The incident, although not the bystanders, was painted by Zurbaran in the Vision of Fray Andres Salmeron Brown1978 p118-9, Pl 34.

Mysticism of an extreme type was able to flourish because of Spain’s intellectual isolation. In 1558 the death penalty had been introduced for importing foreign books without permission, in the following year unorthodox works were placed on a prohibited list & attendance at foreign universities was forbidden apart from certain centres that were considered safe. Spanish universities were more or less reduced to centres of indoctrination. The degree of intolerance in Spain is shown by the common accusation in the records of the Inquisition that those accused took baths Ogg p379, Landes p180, NCMH 3 p450. It was a society in self-conscious decline as shown by the Arbitrates. They were a group of reformist thinkers who from the late 16^th century made an acute diagnosis of what was wrong. Spain was too dependent on the flow of treasure from the New World which financed imports & made exporting unnecessary & uncompetitive. Treasure financed wasteful government expenditure & reinforced the belief of the extensive noble class, whose top echelons thronged the court, that it was a disgrace to work. The Arbitrates called for tax reform & measures to prevent the church being constantly enriched through bequests NCMH4 pp 435, 446-7,Wikip [but revise when Elliott becomes available.] [Spain was not a happy society & its mystic religion was its opiate both for those in holy orders & for the populace]

[How else can one interpret] the life size & realistic sculptures that were carried in procession [through crowded streets] during Holy Week? The illusion was almost always enhanced by paint, by real clothing & sometimes glass eyes, glass tears & real hair. Such statues helped to account for the ecstatic, mystical paintings that a feature of Spanish Eloquent Painting, although the paintings also influenced the sculptures H&P pp189-90, 193.

Characteristics:

(a) The still-life paintings have a striking & mysterious intensity, immediacy & presence. This is produced by means of chiaroscuro in which striking highlights are combined with dark backgrounds, & compositions in which objects are placed close to the picture plane as in the work of Sanchez Cotan & Van der Hamen Brown1998 pp 86, 87 115. The eloquent depiction of material objects by Cotan & Zurbaran had a religious dimension. When the former became a monk, he classified his 11 still-life paintings as “offerings to the Virgin” Moffitt p141.

(b) The composition of the religious works is strikingly simple & they have an eloquent intensity which corresponds to that of the still-life paintings, witness those of Francisco Ribalta, Jusepe de Ribera & Zurbaran Brown1998 pp 97, 134, 142, 150, 157, 160, 163.

(c) Other religious works, together with narrative paintings, are more complex. However, even these are relatively straightforward, Figures do not interlock or display Baroque exuberance. On the contrary the drawing is clear & figures tend to be well spaced Brown1998 pp 80-3, 89-90, 96,105-7, 112, 116-21, 123-5, 129-32, 135-6, 138-9, 143-4, 151, 153-4, 156, 159, 161, 162, 188.

(d) A striking feature of the religious works is the way in which ecstatic Saints & are pictured in direct contact with Christ or other heavenly figures as in works by Ribalta, Zurbaran, Alonso Cano, & Ribera Brown1998 pp 97, 142, 150, 160 H&P p176. Until the end of the 17^th century depictions of visionary experience had been infrequent, & close encounters with divinity had been considered dangerous, but thereafter they almost became an obsession. El Greco was an early painter of ecstatic spiritual visions although without direct embrace between man & God Moffitt pp 130-2.

Painters: Bartolome & Vincente Carducho, Sanchez Cotan, Jan van der Hamen, Francesca Herrera the Elder, Juan Bautista Maino, Antonio de Perada, Francisco Ribalta, Velazquez, Zurbaran [but not Roelas or Francesca Herrera the Elder] Brown1998 .

ESCHATOLOGICAL PAINTING & FANTASY LANDSCAPE:

Concept: Eschatology is the branch of theology concerned with the ultimate or last of things, such as death, judgement, heaven or hell. [A significant part of northern European art during the 15^th & 16^th centuries deals with eschatological subjects, particularly visions of a hellish type. Such paintings are frequently described as fantasy.] Jacques Lassaigne goes further & distinguishes fantasy painters as being a new departure in Flemish painting L&D pp 6,7 & Ch 1. They not only included the work of Bosch & his followers but also those who painted fantastic landscape. The landscape of fantasy was recognised as a distinct category by Kenneth Clark, although he not only included 16^th century northern artists such as Grunewald & Altdorfer but also some Italian & later painters Clark1949 Ch 3. [Therefore, my category of eschatological painting & fantasy landscape mainly in northern Europe has been more or less recognised. What however is less clear is how this type of painting should be interpreted. Was it just pure fantasy or was it, following a period of tranquillity, part of a new era in which age-old spiritual unrest returned to torture humanity?] See L&D pp 6, 11, 16.

Background: Towards the end of the Middle Ages melancholy & gloom became widespread. No other epoch has laid so much stress on the thought of death. Tombs were adorned with [skeletons] & with hideous images of naked corpses in the process of decomposition Hizinga pp 31, 138, 140. During the late Middle Ages, it became common to make special provision for the continued performance of masses after death for the avoidance of subsequent punishment. To this end chantries were founded either in a special chapel or a parish church. Those unable to afford the expense joined religious guilds [or confraternities] Myers pp 159-60. [But perhaps the best evidence of malaise] is the intensified fear of witchcraft & the way in which the Church, hitherto a restraining influence, now led the drive to hunt out & burn them. From the late 15^th century, a crusade against witches became widespread with the papal bull Summis Desiderates Affectibus deploring the spread of witchcraft in Germany & authorizing two Dominican inquisitors to extirpate it. In 1486 their great printed encyclopaedia of demonology, the Malleus Malificarum, appeared T-R1969 pp 24-5. Not until the late Middle Ages was it believed that the witch owed her powers to having made a pact with the devil ThomasK p521.

There was also recurrent religious hysteria. The belief in the prevalence of sin & evil led to extensive self-flagellation in Germany & the Low Countries after the Black Death,1347-9. It took the form of flagellant processions which moved from town to town & were welcomed by their inhabitants. Especially in Germany the flagellants were hostile to the clergy & the Church, & in 1349 the Pope issued a Bull condemning the flagellants & calling for their suppression. It was immediately put into effect &, although there were occasional & localised outbreaks, the movement had ended Cohn Ch VI.

A period of relative tranquillity gave way to one of tribulation. In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks who already controlled much of the Balkans. By then a proto-Protestant movement had arisen under Jan Huss in Bohemia & the Pope launched a crusade in response. Ultimately the more extreme faction, the Taborites, were defeated by the Utraquists & in 1434 a compromise church was established. The Taborites not only repudiated all forms of Catholic doctrine & practice but also any form of professional priesthood. They were chiliasts who believed in a millennial society which private property was abolished & lords, nobles & the urban rich were to be exterminated. However, it was the Taborites who were exterminated after an extensive revolt. This led together with Taborite propaganda to widespread fear amongst the propertied classes & a quietest movement. However, in 1576 there was another uprising of a similar millennial & egalitarian led by Hans Bohm at Niklashausen near Wurzburg. This too was put down but millennialism continued both in publications & a series of conspiratorial movements centred on the Upper Rhine DaviesN pp 389, 403-4, 428-9, 446, Cohn p146, 223, 228, 235-7, 241-7, 249-1.

The Hussite revolt foreshadowed the breakup of the Catholic church in Germany & the Low countries subsequent to Luther’s attack on indulgencies when he famously nailing up his Teses in 1517. What was also important for the story of how eschatological painting developed, at least as a background influence, was the violent social disturbances that took place during the Peasant’s War of 1524-5 in Germany. The Hussite revolt was partly motivated by Czech resentment against the largely German hierarchy but [both it & the Protestant movement would not have happened but for the faults of the Church: worldliness, pluralism, simony, nepotism & the sexual misconduct of those supposedly celibate] Davies N pp 428, 485, 488

Patronage: In 16^th century Germany ducal patronage played a decisive role. Although their conflicting interests meant political paralysis their desire to enhance their own glory by supporting the arts were a blessing for painters & painting Benesch pp 12, 16.

Development: The key painter for the development of horror painting was Hieronymus Bosch. The dating of his work is highly uncertain. However, his early work appears to have been of a conventional type but by the Death of the Miser, the devil has made an appearance & Bosch’s message has become reasonably clear. This is the conflict between good & evil, & the hypocrisy of trying to serve both God & Mammon GibsonWS p28, NGArt painting web note . Other works contain depraved & dehumanised individuals, monsters & hell. Bosch also painted a hellish landscape background in one wing of his Garden of Earthly Delights GibsonWS pp78, 95, 126-7. The first German painting of claustrophobic all-over scenes was Altdorfer’s Forest Scene with St George & the Dragon in 1511, & his remarkable & celebrated Battle of Alexandria with its threatening sky was not painted until 1529 Benesch1965 p44, WoodCS pp 19-22

Characteristics: These paintings belong to a spectrum ranging from the troubling to the terrifying. Hence, they do not for instance include paintings where devils seem to display themselves more for the titillation of the damned than for the punishment of their tormenters . Nor do they include those landscapes where the mountains are merely puzzling & bizarre. There has to be a threatening element. Needless to say, this means that there are paintings & artists who, like Peter Huys, are on the borderline & difficult to classify See GibsonWS pp 166-7. Another difficulty is that painters do not fit neatly into the eschatological movement because all, or nearly all, their works qualify. It must be regarded as a type of painting, not as a type of painter.

(a) Perhaps the most striking characteristic of eschatological paintings is the depiction of violence. This is true of both subject paintings & those which have a large element of landscape.

(b) Another related feature is the presence of individual with features & expressions that are sub-human. Whereas the figures in Italian painting of the High Renaissance can be described as idealised, these faces are bestialised. This is, for instance, the case for those who are tormenting Christ in paintings of the Passion. Here they are often taking pleasure in inflicting pain See GibsonWS pp 126-7.

(c) The obverse of this is the extreme suffering of those witnessing or involved in the terrible events that are taking place See Benesch p85.

(d) Elsewhere there are those who do not realise what is happening & the fate which awaits them GibsonWS p169.

(e) Eschatological works frequently contain supporting elements such as devils, demons, monsters & fantastic unworldly objects & figures See GibsonWS pp 38, 59, 95, 145.

(f) The witch was a major actor Davidson pp 126-34

(g) Landscapes have stormy skies; sinister sunsets; trees with writhing branches ; & claustrophobic forest scenes in which the interlaced trees are overlapped with the undergrowth See Benesch p96, 176, Benesch1965 p44. There are sharp rocky outcrops & mountains which thrust upwards at a gravity denying angle Harbison p140, Cuttler p426

Fantasy Landscape began during the 15^th century & was, according to Clark, a semi-romantic response of semi-secure urbanites to the disturbing world of nature. It was a form of expressionism that was essentially northern & forest inspired. Grunewald & Albrecht Altdorfer, who exemplify fantasy landscape, came from forest lands Clark1949 pp 73-4. The movement was not exclusively northern, with Italian interest being stimulated by Classical literature (Lucretius, Vitruvius) & travellers’ reports Clark1949 p77. The Danube School landscapes during the period from about 1500 to 50 showed the dynamic exuberance of nature by means of forest growth, explosively radiant heavens & mountains seemingly in motion TurnerRtoI p71. The fantastic panoramas which dominated landscape painting in the 16^th century contained flaming light & fire, not ordinary sunset or sunrise. They appear to have begun about 1495 with Bosch & were continued by Patinenir etc. Following the Byzantine tradition there were also fantastic, jagged rocks which were a feature of southern art Clark1949 pp 77-87

Painters: Altdorfer, Henri met de Bles, Bosch, Peter Bruegel the Elder (a few), El Greco (landscapes), Hans Baldung Grien (excluding altarpieces), Grunewald, Peeter/Peter Huys, Jan Mandyn, Cornelis Masseys, Joachim Patinir, Luca Signorelli L&D Ch

EXPRESSIONISM & AFTER: (43)

Term: The first modern usage was in 1911. In the catalogue of the Berlin Secession of it was used to cover recent French painting of the Fauves, Picasso etc, & was extended to German artists L&L, Dube p18. In the first monograph on Expressionism which was by Paul Fechter in 1914, the term was used in a modern manner to cover the German counter-movement against Impressionism & the work of the Die Brucke & Blau Reiter artists, & also Oskar Kokoschka. He associated Expressionism with the anti-intellectual, the emotional & the spiritual Dube p19, Behr p8. Expressionism is distortion & exaggeration for emotional effect. When used broadly, expressionism describes art that reflects the artist’s state of mind rather than images of the external world. Hence the paintings by Grunewald & El Greco, which convey intense religious emotion through distorted forms, are examples of expressionism in this sense. When used more narrowly, it describes modern art in which there are strong non-naturalistic colours, or distorted & abbreviated forms which are employed to project inner feelings. In its narrowest sense it denotes the art movement which was mainly located in Germany & arose in Germany during the early 20^th century, & which is now under discussion OxDicMod. [It was however anticipated by Munch, Van Gogh & Modersohn-Becker who have been included in the Movement, together with Max Beckmann who painted expressionist works during the inter-war period.] [The post Second World War revival of Expressionism has been termed Neo-expressionism et al & has been treated as a separate movement.]

Influences: These included Van Gogh who exaggerated natural appearances; Gauguin who simplified & flattened forms, & whose colour was sometimes unrealistic; Munch who used violent colour & linear distortion to express basic emotions; the revival of the woodcut with its expressive potential; & Ensor who employed carnival masks to depict human baseness OxDicMod.

Characteristics: The social & natural scene, as viewed by the German Expressionists & their immediate predecessors, appears from their works to have contained much that was repulsive & loathsome as well as a little that was innocent & desirable. Groups of plumed & attenuated prostitutes, sometimes with potential clients, were an adverse aspect of the modern world as pictured in Kirchner’s work up to & including 1914 Dube pp 45, 51, Sadowsky pp 10. 14, Behr p51, JRS Pl 7,8. These are only part of a much larger repertoire of work that show what is ugly or sinister, or which portray those who are unhappy, distressed, selfish or evil Dube pp 48-9, 60-3, 73, 84, 159, 166, 181, 193, JRS Pl 107, 115, 118-9, 121; & Hodin for Munch pp 23, 41, 51-3, 56, 59, 63, 68, 72, 84, 86-7, 89-90, 92=3, 95-97, 109, 111, 118-9, 124. However, Expressionism was bipolar & many works, probably the majority, present a very different picture.

These portray happy young adults, innocent nudes, some religious works, portraits of a neutral variety & also pleasant town & landscapes etc Dube pp 47, 50, 52-3, 55-9, 62, 65-7, 72, 75, 78-83, 87-8, 91-3, 98-101, 103, 107, 109-11, 113, 115-8, 120-3, 129, 138-40, 143, 146-7, 151, 153, 173-5, 181-5, 187-91, 194-5, 198-9, 200 [Revise & extend.] Both aspects of Expressionism were associated with a belief in the revitalisation of art by means of primitivism. It was at the time widely believed that it was possible to gain access to the very sources of creativity by rejecting 19^th Realism [& other tired forms of painting] by embracing art produced by tribal peoples, children & the insane Rhodes pp 21, 133, See also Primitivism in Section 7. This helps to explain much of the work of Egon Schiele who was fascinated by the insane, & also such paintings as Autumn Evening, 1924, by Emil Nolde, who rejected the urban environment & her painted the unspoilt primaeval landscape of Schleswig-Hostein Rhodes p139. [On the other hand, it also helps explain Kirchner’s Figures Walking into the Sea, 1912, which depicts an innocent & uninhibited young couple who have not been weighed down by civilisation.]

A related theme in Expressionist painting was the celebration of nature. Franz Marc was from 1908 preoccupied by animals which appeared to him purer & less corrupt than man Grove20 pp 380-1, JRS Pl 38-9, 42-3. However, later he came to see & paint animals as belonging to an existence of flaming suffering Behr p58. The most striking visions of nature as apocalyptic catastrophe were painted by Ludwig Meidener prior to the First World War in 1912-3, JRS Pl 75-8.

Other more obvious features of Expressionist paintings, & those that are mentioned by art historian, are its strong assertive forms, often violently distorted, symbolic colours, & suggestive lines, Turner p165. Colour & form were completely unrestrained in contrast to the Fauve’s harmonious design & semi-decorative colouring OxDicMod.

Centres: German Expressionism was not a unified movement. There were three main centres:

(a) Dresden where a group of young artists formed Die Brucke (The Bridge) in 1905 Dube p23. The name was inspired by a statement by Nietzsche whom the painters admired. It indicated their faith in a happier & more creative future. Leading Expressionists in Dresden comprised Kirchner, Heckel, Schmitt-Rotluff, Nolde, Pechtein & Mueller OxDicMod, Dube pp 36-93. Expressionism in Dresden [more or less came to an end] in 1910 when the Neue Session was founded in Berlin. The old Berlin Secession under Liebermann rejected the work of Nolde, Pechtein & others for its exhibition. This led to the foundation of the new body with Pechtein as president Dube pp 33, 158. Over the next few years many of the leading Dresdenites moved to Berlin & paintings showing the stress & depravity of city life became increasingly important Dube pp 42, 209, OxDicMod.

(b) Munich where the Neue Kunstlervereinigung Munchen (New Artists’ Alliance) was formed in 1909 Dube p95 . In 1911 the Alliance split & the Blaue Ritter (Blue Rider) group came into existence Dube p101. The principal Expressionists in Munich were Kandinsky, Jawlensky, Munter, Marc, Macke, Klee, Campendonc & Kubin Dube pp 105-55. Although these artists did not have a common style their work tended more towards the spiritual than that of the more earthy concerns of the die Brucke OxDicMod.

(c) Berlin where the Neue Sezession was established in 1910 Dube p158. The principal Expressionists in Berlin were Beckmann, Feininger, Barlach, Meidner, & Kokoschka Dube pp 161-95.

(d) Elsewhere: Other centres of Expressionist art were in the Rhineland & Vienna where Egon Schiele & Kokoschka painted, although the latter lived in Berlin during 1910-11 Dube pp 189-201, 209

Painters:

(a) Proto: Paula Moderson-Becker Munch, Van Gogh Dube p13, OxDicMod

(b) Germany: Barlach, Beckmann, Campendonc, Feininger, Heckel, Jawlensky, Kandinsky (briefly) Kirchner, Klee, Kubin, Macke, Marc, Meidner, Morgner, Mueller, Munter, Nauen, Nolde, Pechtein, Rohlfs, Schmitt-Rotluff

(c) Vienna: Kokoschka, Schiele

FANTASY (4)

FRENCH ACADEMIC PAINTING, 1648-1754

The GREAT TRADITION, 1889-1950 (41)

Term: It is my own because there seems to have been no clear recognition by art historians that the artists in question formed a distinct international movement. In surveys of British art during the first half of the 20^th century they have customarily been given a passing mention in discussions which mainly deal with other subjects Spalding1986 Ch 1, etc. However, a movement with a freely brushed style & bravura technique has been identified by such art historians as Albert Boime & Robert Jensen & has been termed The Juste Milieu International. This was an attempt, which began in France under the Third Republic, to reconcile Impressionism and academic legibility and construct an artistic elite outside the bankrupt Salon & distinct from the work of Bougereau & other pompier artists. Candidates for inclusion in this Juste Mileau include among others the Americans Sargent & Gari Melchers; Albert Besnard in France: Boldini & de Nittis from Italy; & the Spaniard Raimundo de Madrazo & Joaquin Sorolla. These artists were united by their social position, by a network of acquaintance & friendship, by their ability to live like princes, & by their celebration of artistic temperament Jensen Brettell pp 90-1, 222, JensenR pp138-44.

Influences: Italian Renaissance painting, Velasquez, Hals, Vermeer, Manet E&L pp 31, 38, 106, 109, Gerdts1980 p96.

Characteristics: Those in the Great Tradition handled paint in a fluent & seemingly effortless manner. Their brushwork was decisive with an absence of Impressionistic stabbing or dabbing. They concentrated on tonal values & harmonious colouring, & they produced paintings that often seem like an ostensive definition of beauty. Although they came in for heavy criticism it was never suggested that they their technique was poor even by those, like Fry, who were most critical See Fry1926 p130. [On the contrary it was often described as bravura.]

They did not, however, have a common style. It ranged from sweeping brushwork, as seen for instance in Fergusson’s La Terrace, to Paxton’s Yellow Jacket which was obviously inspired by Vermeer Gerdts1989 pp 94-5. The absence of a common method was probably due to the numerous sources on which they drew. Hence the designation Great Tradition. What does unite these artists is their subject matter & the way in which it was handled. There was an emphasis on portraiture & domestic interiors. They reflect the affluence, ease, & good taste of a leisured, unhurried society. There was an avoidance of the sordid & squalid, in contrast for instance to the work of Sickert. This did not involve the painting of the Nude of which there are some notable examples e.g., UFJ p111, Gerdts1980 p94, RA1900 p127.

At first sight the portraits appear to be flattering & sympathetic depictions of the great, the good, the rich & the sophisticated. The sitters stand out against their backgrounds & indeed often seem to advance towards the viewer beyond the frame. They certainly do not meld into the background as in Whistler’s late portraits Spalding1994 pp 46, 48, SuttonD1963 Pl 56. This means that those portrayed often have the appearance of being super-real with a presence which is above & beyond that of ordinary mortals e.g., Fairbrother p84.

The interior scenes wherever they are set depict leisure, contentment & happy social interaction e.g., Fairbrother p 144. What is noticeable is that when, as so often, the location is in a room it is decorated & furnished in a tasteful & cultivated manner e.g., UFJ p 83. The depictions by Chase of his studios are a particularly notable example Galatti pp 38, 41, 51. An emphasis on refinement is also found in the still-life paintings that were so frequent. They feature fine, glowing silver & glassware. Flowers are delicate & chaste e.g., Flemmings p119, Gallati p126, Schwartz pp 233-4.

The outdoor scenes appear to be equally reassuring. They feature quiet countryside, gardens, dignified buildings, historic towns, tranquil streets. The paintings of a landscape type appear to rarely be of epic or panoramic variety but of a more restricted & Arcadian type e.g., E&L pp 40, 41, 62. In the subject pictures where one or more individuals are shown out of doors the message appears much the same: once again leisure, contentment & happy social interaction, e.g., UFJ p83, Gerdts1980 pp 94, 132, & 1984 pp 177, 187, Olson Pl XXX, XXXI.

It is in the portraits of women, & scenes in which they are the focus of attention, that the emphasis on leisure & refinement is so marked. They are typically young, beautiful, or at least comely, smartly dressed if outside the home, & often in flowing garments when inside. Moreover, they are seldom actively engaged in any purposeful or constructive activity, unless playing patience qualifies. Although they may have been actively employed, they have now paused e.g., Gerdts1984 p186, E&S pp 38, 66-7, 82, 90, 99, 131, Gallati too numerous to cite. [They belong to the leisured class.]

First impressions can be misleading & this is often, though not of course always, true of The Great Tradition. In the portraits the great & the good are in many cases treated with irony, not always gentle, e.g., UFJ p92. Quiet streets & houses are sometimes disturbingly empty &, where couples & families are depicted, the human relationships may on close inspection appear far from satisfactory e.g., E&L p113, Olson Pl IX. Hammershoi’s interiors are striking example of emptiness with their open doors & lonely tuned away figures KSF pp 41, 43, 57,60, 71, 76, 77, 83-90, 92, 94-5, 97, 105, 107, 134. [On occasion sexual relationships & desires are delicately indicated.]. Only the pure landscapes are what they seem. These are in the main subtle pictures that only yield their secrets after careful, protracted study & the absorption of atmosphere. It is curious that in the past critics, like Roger Fry, were blinded by the splendid technique with which the works had been painted & were unable to look below the surface See Fry1926 pp 125-35.

One important feature of this type of painting was a daring & unconventional use of space. A large portion of the central or foreground area was often left vacant in both interior & exterior scenes. This was accompanied by an asymmetric arrangement of figures. In this, & other ways, the paintings often give rise to a feeling of disquiet Gallati pp 43-5, 61, 70, 72, Gerdts1980 p162. [Image of In the Park by Chase to be inserted here.] Another feature was the window picture where a figure is silhouetted or in dappled light. There are notable examples of both in Orpen’s work UFJ pp 94, 102-3, also Gerdts1980 p94. Hammershoi had the distinction of producing window paintings where incoming light is broken by window bars with sinister effect KSF pp 99, 103. Those in The Great Tradition were moreover surprisingly adventurous in their use of perspectival & compositional effects e.g., M&W pp 154-5, Galatti p51.

Development: There is no way of establishing exactly when The Great Tradition began. However, the date should not be set later than 1884 when Sargent left Paris, turned away from genre subjects & concentrated on painting the beau monde Charteris p226. [These feature members of the affluent class that had hitherto appeared relatively little in Realist works]. The Great Tradition continued to flourish up to the Second World War. It was under increasing attack but its members seemed to pay little attention. However, after 1945 with the tide flowing strongly in favour of Modernism, the diminishing band, felt impelled to retaliate, & at the 1949 RA dinner Alfred Munnings, the President, made his celebrated, but ill-judged, counter-attack. His speech can be seen as marking the end of The Great Tradition as a movement of importance (though Munnings himself lived on). However, this does not mean that portraiture, genre & landscape of this type came to an end if only because there was a continuing demand.]

Links & Common Features: Many of the artists who belonged to this movement knew each other, & were familiar with each other’s work e.g., M&W p107. In Britain they were members of NEAC, were RAs or ARAs, or at least exhibited at the same Summer Exhibitions E&L pp 20, 62. In France they belonged to the Société National des Beaux-Arts which Sargent, Boldini & others had set up in 1890 Norman1977 pp 37, 88. Most of the German artists lived in Munich & were associated with its Secession, at which other artists in The Great Tradition also showed their paintings.

Academic Realists did not belong to the avant-garde by which they were scorned. On the contrary they were members of the Establishment, frequently RAs &/or members of NEAC. They painted portraits of the rich & famous for money, & landscapes etc for relaxation. Many became wealthy, although they were not necessarily dedicated to making money. Sargent is an example of somebody how gave up portraiture in order to paint what he wanted Charteris p177. They were not politically committed though some, like Orpen, had serious politically concerns UFJ pp 43, 70-2.

Repute: Although seen as skilled they have criticised for glamorising the wealthy (Sargent & Orpen), sentimentalising the poor (Munnings, Mancini), having little to say (Orpen), or squandering their talents (Orpen & McEvoy) Harrison p40 , Farr p193, Shone1977 p13, Hamilton1967 p179. Only their paintings of the Great War have been praised (Sargent, Orpen) Farr p228. Sometimes they are simply described as displaying glittering degradation or dazzling superficiality (de Lazlo, Boldini) Shone1977 p13, Hamilton1967 p179.. Fry concluded that Sargent was, “undistinguished as an illustrator & non-existent as an artist Fry1926 p155. An alternative to outright dismissal was damnation by faint praise. Nicholson was described as a man of high gifts who lacked originality & could only regretfully be described as a little master at a time when they had become unfashionable (though why fashion determined merit was not explained) Rothenstein pp 137-8. Only the German & American members of the Great Tradition gained some recognition & figured in exhibitions at prestigious galleries C&C, MET1981, Gerdts1980.

Of late the denigration of the artists under discussion has more or less come to an end & their work has been re-evaluated in books & displayed in exhibitions. This has been one aspect of reappraisal of painting that has been taking place now that the belief that Modernism was all important has come to an end See ???. However, there is still some way to go. No artist in the Boston School is mentioned in the authoritative Oxford History of Modern Art Doss

Painters:

(a) GB: James Bateman, J. D. Fergusson (early), Ambrose & Mary McEvoy; Sir Herbert Gunn; Dame Laura Knight, Sir William Orpen; Sir Thomas Monnington, Harry Morley; Muirhead; Munnings; Thomas Nash, Sir William Nicholson; Rothenstein; Albert Rutherston; James McIntosh Patrick, Sargent; Shannon; Charles Spencelayh; Steer, Leonard Taylor, Tonks

(b) USA: Beaux, Benson, Chase, Joseph DeCamp; William Paxton

(c) France: Cassatt

(d) Germany: Lenbach, Liebermann, Slevogt, Trubner, Uhde, Zugel See Roh p14, Met1981 pp 33-4 .

(e) Italy: Boldini, Mancini

(f) Scandinavia: Anders Zorn, Gunnar Berndtson, Hammershoi

(g) Russia: Serov, Serebryakova

[NB This is a provisional list]

THE HIGH RENAISSANCE: (5)

Term & Concept: The latter originated with Vasari who believed that the Renaissance reached a summit of perfection with the work of Leonardo, Raphael, Giorgione & Michelangelo Vasari2 pp 151-54, Murray p117. [That there was a distinct High Renaissance period which embraced both Florentine & Venetian painting is unlikely to be disputed, & is one of the few almost unchallenged categories in the history of painting See Murray. It is however curious that the period during which it flourished has sometimes] been restricted to the period from about 1495 to 1620 Lucie-S2003, OxDicArt. Although the High Renaissance overlapped with other stylistic movements, namely the Early Renaissance & Mannerism, it certainly extended much later. Michangelo lived until 1564 & Titian did not die until 1576, although their later work paintings somewhat from their earlier work L&L. Two important artists have been included in my movement who are not usually regarded as belonging to the High Renaissance: Perogino & Giovanni Bellini. It has been recognised that Perugino made an important contribution to the shift from Early to High Renaissance painting, that he does not fit with contemporary Early Renaissance artists, & that he created large clear compositions with few figures carefully related to each other in an ordered calm Grove24 pp 520-2, Murray p10. [Hence it seems clear that he is best regarded as a Hight Renaissance artist. Likewise, Giovanni Bellini has been seen as having set the stage for the triumph of Venetian painting & his works have the Grove3 p658

Characteristics: The key feature of High Renaissance painting is its Idealisation Friedlaender1925 pp 5-6, Wollflin1889 pp 224-5. This involved the omission of the incidental, & concentration on the truly relevant & entertaining. This meant that works are no longer charming or naive. Colour & incidental objects & trappings are no longer gay Wolfflin1899 pp 217-8, 221, 244, Murray pp 7, 9. Figures have restrained & well-bred expressions & gestures Wolfflin1899 pp 212-5, 219-22, 260.

Another feature of High Renaissance painting was the impact it produced & the efforts that were taken to simplify the image & increase its significance Wolfflin1899 p260. Figures became larger but were given more space & pushed back Wolfflin1899 pp 254-5. Groups of figures became more compact & broadly based triangular groupings were replaced by high pyramids Wolffflin1899 p255. Composition through the use of contrast was invented, it now being clearly recognised that all values are relative & that for full effect opposites must be juxtaposed, e.g., calm with movement, large as against small, simple & complex, calm versus moving, involved & uninvolved Wolfflin1899 pp 258-9. Clothing was no longer allowed to become an independent object that would obscure a plastic effect Wolffflin1899 p261, Murray p10. The modelling & shadowing of heads replaced mere eye gleam Wolffflin1899 pp 261-2. Body structure was now indicated by muscles & joints & the previous defective rendering was corrected. Lumpy & piecemeal recumbent nudes were replaced by clear articulation Wolffflin1899 pp 264-6. Comprehensible figure groupings replaced confusing close packed figures Wolffflin1899 p267. Bodily movement advanced from two to three dimensions, & motionless figures were enhanced by for instance twisting & knee crossing Wolffflin1899 pp 268-70. There was an evolution from standing, through seated, to recumbent figures thus providing greater axial contrasts Wolfflin1899 p272. Group & crowd pictures now display rich axial contrasts & such painting display salience & recession. They are no longer stratified with flat figures standing along a horizontal line Wolfflin1899 pp 273-4, 276. A figure with one foot on a step & an arm reaching across body, with the head turned the other way, was also used by Sarto & Pontormo Wolffflin1899 p144. Early Renaissance paintings were often of a narrative type with succeeding incidents depicted in different segments in paintings with a landscape configuration as in works by Botticelli’ such as his Three Miracles of Saint Zenobius Murray p7. From the late 1490s timeless & fashion fewer enveloping draperies were progressively replaced the contemporary costume of religious figures Murray pp 19-20.

Paintings are now inspired by a new conception of beauty in which figures are dignified & elegant, & have more natural & decisive movement & postures Wolfflin1889 pp 231-3. Such decisive & easy movements replaced those which were stiff or unduly agitated pp 231-3, 235. Slender youthful & elongated female beauty, as in the girl-angels of Botticelli & Filippino with their sharp articulations & skinny arms, were replaced by rounded, strong & ripe beauty. This featured broad hips. Necks, which were formerly long, slender & set on sloping shoulders became round, short & set on broad, strong shoulders. The lean & supple boy was replaced by mannishness Wolfflin1899 pp 235-9. Calm & sweeping lines replaced restless, intricate, moving & broken ones Wolfflin1889 pp 252, 254.

Another crucial feature is that works now have a new type of structure. This is of a closed, self-contained & inward-looking type which produces a feeling of inevitability & permanence Wolfflin1899 p281, & 1926 pp 124. Paintings are spacious with a simple, strong & unified design in which the parts are inter-dependent & form an architectonic structure. They have a centred & vertical axial construction [even when movement is shown]. The play of light is indicated in a simple manner, there are strong shadows & spatial effects are more realistic with three dimensionality & foreshortening Wolfflin1899 pp 243, 252, 254, 256-8, 262, 274, 276-7, 279-80, &1926 pp124-6, NGTitiian p105. Fra Bartolommeo & others made considerable use of the new & fully developed form of the Sacra Conversazione in which the background is a recessed apse opening out of the main structure Wolfflin1889 pp 145, 149, 152, Murrays1963 pp 131-2.

There is a new emotionalism in which deep & sonorous harmonies & splendid chords replace staccato notes. [Paintings are emotive yet restrained] & they cannot therefore be described as passionate Wolfflin1899 pp 208, 212. The emotions depicted are of a more subtle, gentle & tender type as in Titian’s Noli Me Tangere, c1514 Hale p136, NGTitian p86. This painting also contains what has been termed a landscape of mood. These are works which, as in the early Bellini, are painted with love at a time of heightened emotion & in the poignant light of sunrise or sunset Murrays1963 p266, Clark1949 pp 49, 51-3.

Technique in Florence & Venice: Florentine artists usually sketched out the grouping & spacing of the picture &/or made detailed drawings of particular elements. They then transferred & enlarged their work & made finished oil paintings. Iin Venice their sketches typically showed the overall structure & indicated parts but only up to the point necessary if painting were to proceed. Venetian artists tended to start painting at an earlier stage because they regarded colour as integral, & not an element to be added at a later stage Newton1952 pp 17-19

Colour: During the 16^th century Florentine colours appear brighter & more variegated than Venetian. However, this is misleading because the favourite Venetian green tends to turn an irreversible brown or even black. In Titian the marvellous blues may no longer be matched by the intended intense greens. Venetian colour during the first two decades of the 16^th century, as represented by Titian, featured a restricted range of hues, as against Florentine variety; the frequent use of pure pigment; & harmonious arrangement, as against brightly contrasting colours. It was a new perceptual & realistic mode of vision, dating back to Giovanni Bellini’s work from the 1490s. Colours & tones are the primary building blocks for form, & paintings are built up from colour patches, in contrast to Florentine & Albertian outline. There was a transformation during the 1540s in which hues are muted & drama & movement depend on the interplay of warm & cool tones with complex harmonies & dissonances, usually against a darkened background RAVenice pp 41-2

Innovations & Legacy: One that has not yet been mentioned is the use of sfumato by Leonardo. Here there is subtle blending of colours & tones so that they seem to meld into each other OxDicTerms This technique was taken up by Corregio & was to have important consequences for the future, namely the development of Baroque art & a painterly style Murray pp162-3, Wolfflin1915 p105. Another notable development was the reclining nude whose pose was so satisfying that it continued to be painted for the next 400 years. Giorgione was responsible for the first such painting, the Dresen Venus of around 1510, & it was then popularised by Titian in his Venus del Prado & Venus of Urbino Clark1956 p115.

Background: In 1495 Charles VIII of France invaded Italy at the invitation of Milan’s Ludvico Sforza of Milan. There was no opposition & Rome opened its gates. Ludvico raised a league against France. Charles withdrew after the battle of Fornovo, 1495, with booty Fisher pp 486-7; EBrit. In 1499 Louis XII took Milan. France & Spain agreed to partition northern Italy but Spain ratted & drove France out during 1502-4, & reunited the two Sicilies EBrit, DaviesN p9.

Alexander V1 (1492-1503) & Julius II (1503-1513) then subdued central Italy EBrit. Julius formed the League of Cambrai against Venice & then rallied Spain against France, which was expelled from Lombardy after the battle of Novara, 1513 EBrit, Fisher p487. In 1512 the Medici returned to Florence EBrit. In 1515 Francis I regained Milan at Marignano & Leo X (1513-) relied on France but changed sides in 1521. France was then expelled from Milan & decisively beaten at Pavia in 1525 EBrit.

During the late 15^th century Venetian society was catching up with sophisticated Florentines’ Classical humanism of the sophisticated Florentines. In the late 1460s printing was introduced by immigrants Hale p30. Aldus, who had been born in Rome around 1450, established his press in the 1490s Chamberlin p147. In 1499 he published his first vernacular book, Francesco Colona’s Hypnerotomachia. It is a weird novel of a dream set in Venice about Prolifilus’ love for Polio & has superb woodcuts. Some are explicitly erotic, including a nude a reclining Venus. In 1497 the first translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, which was illustrated, was published in Venice. By 1500 about half of all Italian books were produced in Venice Hale pp 31–4

[Insert a sub-section on Castiglione’s advocacy of good & graceful demeanour See Wolfllin etc.]

Painters: Albertinelli, del Piombo, Fra Bartolommeo, Franciabigio, Giorgione, Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Titian Wolfflin1899., Steer p73

IMPRESSIONISM, AUSTRALIAN, & THE HEIDELBERG SCHOOL: (33)

Term/Concept: The description of work as Australian Impressionist was used by Robers, Streeton & Condor, as well as by the contemporary Australian press, & the term Heidelberg School was coined in 1891 Riopelle p26, TurnerRtoI p158. [However, it should be stressed that the use of the word Impressionism is not intended to suggest that the Australian Impressionists had, apart from free brushwork & an absence of finish, much in common with the French Impressionists. Like British & Canadian Impressionism, Australian Impressionism was a distinct Movement.]

Development: In 1885 Tom Roberts returned to Australia from Europe enthused by direct paint handling end plein air without elaborate finish. He established painting camps at various places outside Melbourne beginning at Housten’s Farm near Box Hill where he was joined by McCubbin. His work was then seen by Streeton & Conder. During 1888-90 Roberts, Conder & Streeton lived in a deserted farmhouse at Eaglemont near Heidelberg & painted incessantly.

In 1889 they, McCubbin & others exhibited paintings at the legendary 9×5 show in Melbourne paintings that were intended to capture fleeting light effects Hughes1966 pp 53-6, TurnerRtoI p158. Roberts from 1890 also painted large & ambitious subject paintings of Australian rural life sometimes of an historical nature featuring bushrangers etc Hughes1966 pp 57-9, TurnerRtoI p158. By 1900 the group had broken up with many members leaving for Europe. However, its vision of Australian life & landscape came to dominate early 20^th century painting OxDicMod. Indeed, it continued up to or beyond the death of Elioth Gruner in 1939 Hughes1970 pp 86-90

Influences: These were many & various. They included Whistler (Roberts) & Bastien-Lepage (Conder), Barbizon (McCubbin via Louis Buvelot), & Corot Riopelle pp 11, 20, 35 Hughes1970 pp 53-4, Grove18 p873, & 29 p768. The heightened sense of Australian nationalism, which led up to federation of the six stated in 1901, was also an important influence. Roberts, Streeton & Condor declared that their 9×5 exhibiton was hopefully a step towards a great school of painting in Australia Riopelle pp 23=4.

Characteristics: It might be thought that all Australian Impressionist works would, except where they were painted in England, depict bright sunshine. Glare under the fierce noonday sun was identified as a feature of Australian Impressionism. Yet bright light was by no means always the case as shown by the damp, cool light in Robert’s Winter Morning after Rain, Gardiner’s Creek, 1885, by Streeton’s ‘Still glides the stream, & shall for ever glide’, 1890, which was at dusk, & by his Freeman’s Funeral. George Street, 1894, which is observed through a curtain of heavy rain Riopelle pp 22, 23, 75 79, 82, 113-4. Nevertheless, colours were generally warm or silvery with pink hues & light purple, browns, green & yellow being much in evidence Riopelle pp 6, 12, 17, 34, 47-8, 50, 58, 64-5, 66-7, 70, 72-3, 76-8, 80-3, 84-5, 86-9, 91, 93, 94-7, 99-100, 102.

Many works depicted scenes of a distinctly Australian type. These included the bush camp & the bush man, the drover on horseback, sheep shearing & the majestic gum trees. Such pictures portray masculine endurance in the face of hardship & hard labour Riopelle pp 44, 46-9, 86. The struggle between man & nature was captured in Streeton’s ‘Fire’s on ‘, Lapstone Tunnel in which a railway is being driven through the Blue Mountains & a dead worker is carried away on a stretcher Riopelle p23. The celebration of the Australian grit & achievement culminated in McCubbin’s triptych The Pioneer, 1905, in which shows the struggle & achievement of land grant family. The last section is a grave scene in which a vision of the city can be seen in the background Hughes1970 p68, Wikip. In contrast to paintings of a pioneering nation there are landscapes of pastoral & lyric beauty such as Streeton’s painting of 1890 Grove2 p746

[The scope & diversity of Australian Impressionism is truly impressive & the artistic counterpart to the nation’s pioneering spirit.]

Links: Most Heidelberger’s trained at the National Gallery of Victoria’s School of Art in Melbourne TurnerRtoI p158.

Painters: Aby Alston; Charles Conder; David Davies; Tom Humphrey; Artur Loureiro; Frederick McCubbin; John Mather; Charles Richardson; Tom Roberts; Clara Southern; Arthur Streeton; Jane Sutherland; & Walter Withers but not John Russell who lived abroad & must be regarded as a true French Impressionist TurnerRtoI p158 &27 p359, Riopelle pp98-107

IMPRESSIONISM, BRITISH AND IRISH: (34)

Term: It is widely & authoritatively used but there is debate & doubt as to whether it was a wide or narrow grouping OxDicMod, McConkey1989. Many authorities think that Steer was the only British artist who was truly, though briefly, an Impressionist. However, it has been asserted by Kenneth McConkey that the latter part of the 19^th century saw the development of an Impressionistic style that was distinctly British McConkey1989 blurb. [Unfortunately, the way in which this style differed from French Impressionism, & of the essential features of a coherent British Impressionism do not emerge McConkey1989 blurb, pp 8, 20-1.

Influences: [Bastian-Lepage was well known in Britain & had an immense influence on the Glasgow Boys & the Newlyn School although he was a Naturalist, not an Impressionist.] Knowledge of French Impressionist was much scantier but the art dealer Durand-Ruel held exhibitions in Bond Street during 1882 & 1883, & the first serious article on Impressionism appeared in The Fortnightly Review McConkey1989 p 63.

Development: Several groups of friends who were Glasgow Boys painted landscapes out of doors during the summer from 1877-82 onwards at various places in Scotland, England & France Billcliffe pp 39-45, 55, etc. By the mid-80s plein–air works that dealt with the daily life of middle-class families were also being painted Billcliffe pp 176-80. One notable work was Summer at Cowes, 1887, by Philip Wilson Steer as this was an authentic Impressionist painting. Seventy oil paintings were exhibited by a group of London Impressionists in 1889, including eight by Steer McConkey1989 pp 63, 80, MacColl1945 p37. What was of more enduring significance was the foundation in 1886 of the New English Art Club by painters who were linked to new French art & opposed to the stuffy RA L&L, See Section 6.

Characteristics: British Impressionist have fluent, assured & generally loose brushwork. & Do not have a high degree of finish. However, with the exception of a few early works by Steer & some by Lucian Pissarro the paint handling is not Impressionist because of the absence of a dabbing technique McConkey1989 pp 18, 91. Their subject includes pure landscape, landscapes with figures, interior scenes & gardens. Paintings frequently depict leisure activities, & including games, meals & nudes McConkey1989 pp 34, 36, 38-9, 41, 46, 50, 58, 81-3, 90, 99, 102-3, 115, 120, 130-1, 140. Heritage paintings featuring ruins also made an appearance McConkey1989 pp 142-3. These works do not include works that can be described as sordid or disturbing, & they do not depict the activities of the working class. This however is a matter of definition as such pictures have been regarded as Social Realism. The paintings included here are of a type that one would be happy to have on a sitting room wall, although this does not mean that they are anodyne. Edward Seago’s big skies which capture clouds in transition might, for instance, be described as uplifting Richard Green site. These & the other paintings included here are very different from those inward facing & sometimes claustrophobic paintings of domestic scenes, & also dense woodland, that are included in the Decorative Painting movement for which See this Section.

Painters: Paul Aysford/Lord Methuen; Lamorna Birch; Hercules Brabazon-Brabazon; Arnesby Brown; Charles Conder; [Charles Cundall]; Wilfred de Glehn; Wynford Dewhurst; Stanhope Forbes (later works); Spencer Gore; Duncan Grant (landscapes); Alexander Harrison; Harold Knight, Lavery; Walter Osborne; [Ronald Dunlop]; [Augustus John]; Roderic O’Connor; Lucian Pissaro; [Edward Seago], Ernest Procter; Theodore Roussel; Steer; Stott of Oldham;Tuke Turner RtoI p171, McConkey1989 pp 156-8, & 2006 pp 180, 198, Fox pp 30-1, 59-63, 65, 82, 84-5, ArtUK

IMPRESSIONISM, CANADIAN: (35)

Term & Concept: That Impressionism had an important influence on Canadian painting has been widely recognised. There has however been a certain reluctance to recognise that there was a Canadian Impressionist Movement. It seems to have been though that Impressionism was not fully explored in Canada Reid pp 127-32, Gerdts1980 p10. [Impressionism in Canada was certainly of a distinctive type. However, as Canadian artists gave Impressionism an unsurpassed intensity it can scarcely be denied the appellation.]

Development: The Canadian Movement began in 1896 when Maurice Cullen, who had been trained in Paris & had exhibited at the Salon, returned to Canada & painted Logging in Winter, Beaupre, 1896,. Impressionism gathered pace after it was taken up by Tom Thomson, & the artists who later formed The Group of Seven. This held its first official exhibition at the Art Gallery of Ontario in 1920, but some of them had been gathering regularly & making sketching trips from as early as 1908 Silcox p21, See Group of Seven in Section 8 After a brief & intense flowering the Movement began to lose its way. From about 1920 there were indications of brushwork that was forceful but lacked sophistication & was becoming crude, & later there was a shift towards hard-edged & stylised painting Silcox pp 54.5 56, 61, 92, 99, 104, 144-5, 159, 175, 185, 230, 235, 282, 303, 308-11, 315, 332-9 etc; See Magic Realism in this Section.

Characteristics: [They were, certainly in the case of Thompson & the Group of Seven, bravura works. The brushwork is confident & daring but not crude or slapdash. These are paintings that display a love of paint as a substance & an ability to use it either boldly or with a caressing hand Silcox pp 1-4, 52-3, 57, 60, 63, 72-3, 77-80, etc. A friend remarked that he would not be surprised to find that Thomson had eaten paint in sheer love of its tactile affinity to the tumult of colour around him in the bush Silcox p213. As might be expected autumn landscapes with their striking colours & chiaroscuro were a speciality. However, subject matter was extremely wide & ranged from industrial scenes to paintings of the Arctic, although only some of the latter be described as Impressionist Silcox pp 50, 129-32, 263, 382-5, 396. Although scenes were painted through Canada , many of the earlier & greatest works were produced at the Algonquin Park, an enormous recreation & game stationary about 150 miles north of Toronto, & at Georgian Bay on Lake Huron Silcox pp 209, 213. Thomson, the Group of Seven & Emily Carr, were all admirers of the transcendentalist writings of Emerson & Thoreau & some of them were theosophists Silcox pp 27-8. It is these pathetic & mystical beliefs that account for the spiritual, visionary & ecstatic nature of so many of their paintings of the world of nature See Silcox p27.

Painters: Clarence Cagnon ; Frank Carmichael; Emily Carr; A. J. Casson; Frank Carmichael; Maurice Cullen; Lawren Harris; Edwin Holgate; A. Y. Jackson; Frank Johnson; LeMoine FitzGerald; Arthur Lismer; J.E. H. MacDonald; Tom Thompson; E. H. Varley Reid pp 127, 129-30, Silcox

IMPRESSIONISM, FRENCH: THE TRUE PAINTERS: (27)

Concept: French Impressionism as usually discussed was a very broad & diverse grouping Adlerp8, See French Impressionism in Section 8 . As some art historians, now recognise, Impressionism cannot be regarded as a Movement with shared aims of a positive nature. It has been concluded that Impressionism as a definable aesthetic is in danger of becoming as nebulous as the surface of a Monet lily pond &, according to the authoritative Oxford History of Art, the term Impressionism is all but useless Reyburn p7, Brettell p19. However, within the general grouping it is possible to distinguish a core of French Impressionist painters with common features who do not fit better elsewhere. They were Monet, Morisot; Camille Pissarro, Sisley, Renoir & Caillebotte after he had ceased to be a Naturalist.

To these well-known painters can be added other artists who painted in the same style, participated in one or more of the Impressionist exhibitions, & were in some cases founder members, namely Armand Guillaumin, Edouard Beliard, Eugene Boudin, Charles-Albert Lebourg, Stanislas Lepine, Alphonse Maureau, Norbert Goeneutte, Ludovic Piette, Stanislas-Henri Rouart, & Victor Vignon. Adolphe Cals also exhibited at the first show & subsequently decided to stop exhibiting at the Salon as a matter of principle Adler pp 12, 18, 25, 31, 39-40, 41, 56-57, 59, 60-5, 72, TurnerRtoI p161, & MtoC pp 27-8

Characteristics: The work of these painters displays the features which are the supposed to characterise the wider Impressionist grouping but which the paintings of so many supposed Impressionists violate. Their brushwork has a considerable degree of freedom & apparent spontaneity, paint is loosely applied [often in dabs thereby defying the prevailing academic emphasis on finish, the colouring tends to be high key], & the tonal contrasts are seldom great. True Impressionists are preoccupied with rendering the ever-shifting play of light. Not the steady light used by Vermeer & so many previous painters but light at an instant in time which has just occurred & will soon past See Impressionism in Section 8. The critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary said that certain of the exhibitors at the first great Exhibition -Monet, Sisley, Morisot, Renoir & Pissarro- were “impressionists in the sense that they render not the landscape, but the sensation produced by the landscape.” They were satisfied with a certain general aspect, took leave of reality & had entered the realms of idealisation LeSiecle 29/4/1874. This betrays a total misunderstanding of the nature of Impressionism. The true Impressionists were not idealists but Realists who sought to capture the fleeting & ephemeral. Because they were plain air & not studio painters, they were well aware that the appearance skies & landscape are in constant flux.

Development: In 1864 Bazille, Monet, Sisley & Renoir went to paint in the Forest of Fontainebleau. They now produced plein air landscapes and figures in landscapes, they eliminated earth tones & adopted lighter palettes, & their brushstrokes became smaller & more fragmented so as to suggest the play of light Turner RtoI p163

However, a more fundamental reason was a crisis of purpose & dissatisfaction with an art based on pure sensation. Pissarro had a near breakdown in the late 1870s & around 1883 Renoir felt he was at a dead end Reyburn p85. He made a study of earlier art which resulted in the depiction of nudes. Pissarro turned to painting peasants as seen close up, to rural market scenes, & later experimented with Pointillism. Monet now painted the remote seacoast & this, & especially his later works in the valley of the Creuse, had greater tonal contrasts. Sisley alone continued to paint in his old manner Reyburn p85, Turner RtoI pp 167-8, Becker Cat 36-41, 43-5, 46-9, Kendall pp 101, 104, 120, 131, 135, 138-45. 156-9, 166-9. [Not all these references may apply.]

Nevertheless, the core Impressionists continued to be preoccupied with the play of light & with the exception of Pissarro’s relatively brief flirtation with Pointillism, continued to use much the same technique.] Only at the tail end does this sometimes cease to be true because some of Monet’s works anticipate abstraction of the lyrical & painterly type Kendal1989 pp 258-61, 274, 292, 298-301, 304-5, 314

IMPRESSIONISM, GERMAN: (37)

Development: A spontaneous approach to light & atmosphere had already been developed by Menzel OxDicMod. From 1898, primarily through the Gallerie Paul Cassire, French Impressionism found its way into museums & private collections & thus into public awareness. Although critics thought the German & French movements had shared features, they overlooked the way in which none of the most radical French innovations had been adopted. These included the organisation of space by colour alone & the dissolution of colour in light. Moreover, Liebermann, Slevogt & Corinth were largely painters of literary, religious & mythological subjects, etc Met1981 p34.

Corinth, Liebermann & Uhde did not begin painting Impressionistic works until around 1895; & Slevogt not until about 1900 Grove7 p855, & 19 p334, & 31 p537, Norman1977. [Although Impressionist was a delayed development & Expressionism became the dominant movement prior to the Great War, Germany had a leading Impressionist, namely August Macke. This has unfortunately been overlooked because he is generally & wrongly regarded as an Expressionist]. He was killed during the war but between 1917 & 1926 Kirchner, who had previously been an Expressionist painted impressionistic landscape, sometimes with figures in the Swiss mountains Sadowsky pp 30-9.

Painters: Corinth, Kirchner Liebermann, August Macke, Slevogt, Trubner, Uhde, Zugel C&C p64, Roh pp 14-24

IMPRESSIONISM, RUSSIAN EMPIRE: (31)

Term/Concept: The existence of Impressionist movement in the Russian Empire is scarcely in doubt as it has been recognised by the Tretyakov Gallery in Impressionism in Russia Dawn of the Avant Garde. Repin had recognised the originality of Manet & the Impressionists when he was in Paris between 1873 & 1876, & together with Polenvov, Savitsky & other Russians he went to Veules-les-Roses in Normandy & painted en plein air. Although Repin was not full Impressionist he & other Russian painters were attuned to the depiction of light & opposed to airless academicism WPS pp 9, 15 Grove26 pp 217–8.

Development: The first Russian painters who went to France included Aleksei Bogoliubov, Perov, Polenov & Repin. Painters generally came from relatively poor intellectual or impoverished noble families & had to apply for scholarships from the Imperial Academy of Arts. They were awarded to those who had won the Grand Medal. However, a few artists including Aleksei Savrasov & Vasily Vereshchagin travelled abroad without scholarships. To begin with scholarship holders preferred the Barbizon painters & Repin was the only one to recognise the originality of Manet & Monet. Painters often seem to have led withdrawn & depressing lives among their fellow countrymen & felt that their stay abroad was pointless. However, in 1870 knowledge of French or German became a requirement & during the 1870s Russian artists became more self-confident, though they continued to be home-sick. At first Repin disliked being in Paris & thought that there was nothing to learn but by the end of his stay he had become enthusiastic about its culture & painting WPS pp 8-9, 12., 16

Patronage & Reception: There was a conservative circle which included Kramskoy, Pavel Tretyakov & the critic Vladimir Stasov who championed Naturalism & opposed contemporary French art. They were highly critical of A Parisian Cafe by Repin, 1874-5, which was regarded as unpatriotic & incompatible with the Slavic nature WPS pp 20-1, 30-1. However, when Tretyakov purchased Serov’s Girl in Sunlight, 1888, he too was accused of buying alien art WPS p24. The state, court & aristocracy remained vital sources of commissions & Repin’s Volga Barge Haulers, 1871 was bought by the Tzar’s brother. Industrialists & merchants, like Tretyakov & Sava Mamontov now became important buyers Wikip,

Context: During the latter part of the 19^th century there was intense Slavophile nationalism. The slogan was “one law (the Tsar’s), one language (Russian), one religion (Russian Orthodox)”, although loyalty to the Russian nation itself was now taking pride of place. The Polish insurrection of 1863 was followed by Russification . This reached an advanced stage under Alexander III in the 1880s when Poles were excluded from public office, obliged to use Russian in schools & courts, & could only sell land to Russians. In Byelorussia & Lithuania Catholics had to go to the Orthodox Church to be married & to legitimise children. In the Baltic provinces Russian became the official language & the Protestant majority were required the consent of the Orthodox authorities in order to erect church buildings. Nicholas II deprived Finland of its previous autonomy. Under Alexander III there were oppressive decrees against the Jews Hayes pp 96, 98, S-W p485.

Russification was carried out by a new breed of professional bureaucrats who, although mostly from landowning families, no longer had the easy-going attitudes of the noble landowning class. They were backed by the military who were worried about the security of border regions & by Orthodox prelates anxious to covert Catholics & Moslems S-W1967 p486. A key figure was Konstantin Pobedonotsev who was Procurator of the Holy Synod.1880-1905. This was the governing body of the Russian Orthodox church. Pobedonotsev regarded humanity as weak, vicious & rebellious. His writings are saturated with the frailties & follies of mankind. Russians & Slavs in particular were lazy & obsessed with money, power & drink. Hence, they required firm rule. Those who idolised reason & believed in the perfectibility of man & parliamentary democracy threatened the unity & very existence of society. His ideas greatly influenced Alexander III & Nicholas II Stavrou pp 48-50, Elliott p48.

Characteristics. [Although genre & portraiture were important, the Russian Empire was particularly notable for its landscape painting, although this often had a genre element.] Landscape of a distinctive national type only began with Alexei Venetsianov, & then his pupils, from around 1820 Leek p26. Such landscape featured the flat & seemingly endless expanse of the Russian plane, the hot summer, the cold winter, & the dramatic change from one season to another Petrova pp 82, 90, 98. There were also paintings of the striking contrasts & light effects which arise where temperatures are very low & storms are frequent Petrova p78. The bounty of the grain lands was yet another subject & cause for celebration Petrova pp 77, 92-3. There are genre works & scenes that display the poverty of the peasantry Petrova pp 21, 79, 92, 100, 106-7, etc However, what is striking is the preponderance of joyous landscape paintings which reflect pride in the motherland, genre that depicts national costume, & works that take a favourable view of peasant life Petrova pp 8, 38, 41, 43, 68-71, 76, 87, 88-9, 91, 97, 103, 105, 110-11, 112-3 etc. [It may be objected that in order to sell painters cannot afford to be too gloomy]. Nevertheless, what is particularly striking is the distinctive & exceptional joyousness which is conveyed by the great Russian landscape painters, witness those of Issacs Levitan, Shiskin & Igor Grabar King pp 15, 24-5, 36, 42-3, 62-3, 80, 86-7, 92, 102-3, 116-7, S&F-D Pl 133-55, etc, A&Y pp 29, 35, 37, 39, 47. Their paintings bring to mind Serov’s declaration in 1887, “I want joy & will paint only joyfully” WPS p245.

A Paradox: [It seems surprising that prior to the Revolution the key characteristic of Russian Impressionist works was their joyousness]. Painters belonged to the intelligence & this was disaffected. Even when he had become a champion of established order & loyal to the Tzar, Dostoyevsky said he would not reveal an impending assassination S-W1967 p539. Tzarism was a declared autocracy with censorship & a secret police, the Okrana. However, the system was nothing like as tyrannical as sometimes supposed. Although there was exile to Siberia only a small number of those sentenced were condemned to forced labour or katorga. In 1906 there were only about 6,000 convicts, & 28,600 in 1916. The bulk of the exiles were forced settlers who were not imprisoned & were often accompanied by their families. They numbered about 720,000 between 1824 & 1889 which is 11,000 a year. Some of these exiles were miserable, became alcoholics, or starved to death because the land was so poor; but this was by no means always the case. Moreover, the system became less harsh & political prisoners obtained favourable treatment Applebaum pp 16-8. Under the regulations of 1865 the government retained the power to suspend any periodical but it no longer questioned their right to exist. However, under new rules in 1882 censorship was tightened. After three warnings it became necessary to gain approval on the day prior to publication NCMH11 p359, S-W1967 p480. Never less artists were able to paint scenes that were critical of the regime as shown by They did not Expect Him, which was shown at Wanderer’s exhibition of 1888 Wikip. [Serov?]

[The relative freedom within the Russian Empire as judged by the standards set by modern totalitarian ism was at best a reason why painters may not have felt too unhappy. That they painted so many works that have joie de vie remains a puzzle. One contributory factor must have been the ready patronage & support that was available from the nouveau riche class of merchants & industrialists. What however was far more important was the belief in Russian exceptionalism, in the Motherland & in Holy Russia. The belief that Russia would be able to avoid the difficulty of passing through a capitalist stage & could build a new progressive society on the basis of the old communal rural institutions, the mir, was a widespread belief among the Russian intelligence, & extended from the Narodnik’s to the Bolsheviks. The important role that was accorded to the peasantry helps to explain the emphasis on landscape & of a joyful type. Russia was also seen as a holy land which was blessed by having its own distinctive form of religion, the Russian Orthodox Church.] This surely explains the prominence which Levitan who was Jewish accorded to churches, in particular in Eternal Rest, 1893-4 King pp 44, 52-3, 68-9, 70-1, Leek pp 66-7.

[Russia was not seen as one country among many but a Holy Motherland. Russian landscapes are so joyous because they are inspired by that most heady of all religions, nationalism] See Hayes. This nationalism extends also to portraiture & genre, vide Repin’s Religious Procession in Kursk Province, 1893, where a shared national religion has unified different social classes & groups into an advancing national movement Leek p78.

(a) Brazil: Pedro Americo de Melo; Victor Meirelles de Lima; Jose Maria de Medeiros Grove1 p774, & 21 p61 , Schwarcz , after p262

(b) Canada: Emily Carr Grove5 p846

(c) Czech Republic: Antonin Machek; Joseph Mannes; Frantisek Tkadlik Grove8 p392, & 14 p586, & 31 p64

(d) Denmark: Christen Dalsgaard; Johan Exner; Frederik Vermehren Grove8 p735

(e) Ecuador: Rafael Troya Grove31 p380

(f) Finland: Albert Edelfelt; Gallen-Kallela; Pekka Halonen; Victor Westerholm Ateneum pp 70-1, 75, 82-90 Grove22 p540, Kent pp 128, 138-40

(g) France: Antoine-Jean Gros Leymarie pp 51-3

(h) Hungary: Miklos Barabas; Gyula Benczur; Jozsef Borsof; Keleti; Liezenmayer; Karoly Lotz; Viktor Madarasz; Marko; Szekely; Mor Than; Sandor Wagner Szekely Grove 3 pp 702-3 & 14 p901; Pogany pp 6-7 [Check through Munkacsy]

(i) Iceland: Johannes Kjarval; Asgrimur Jonsson; Thorarinn Thorlaksson Kent p206-7, 228, Grove15 p70

(j) Italy: Giuseppe Bezzuoli Grove14 p586

(k) Mexico: Augustin Arrietra; Jose Manzo; Jose Velasco Grove21 p385

(l) Norway: Harold Sohlberg Grove22 p540

(m) Poland: Artur Grottger; Wojciech Kossak; Jan Matejko; Piotr Michalowski Grove14 p588, &18 p398.

14 p901; Pogany pp 6-7 [Check through Munkacsy

(n) Portugal: Domingos Antonio de Sequeira Grove14 p586

(o) Romania: Theodor Aman Grove14 p588

(p) Russia: Alexander Morozov; Grigory Myasoyedov; Vasily Perov; Ivan Shiskin; Vasily Surikov; VasnetsovTurnerRtoI p362, 50Rus pp 110, 158, Petrova pp 77, 90, 92-3, 97, Leek

(q) Sweden: Prince Eugen; Richard Bergh; Karl Nordstrom Grove10 p648, Grove22 p540

(r) Spain: Eduardo Cano de la Pena Grove5 p621

(s) USA: Bierstadt; Frederic Church; Cole; Cropsey; Durand; Gifford; James Hamilton?; [Kensett; Moran; Whittredge Turner RtoI p160 Frederic Remington

IMPRESSIONISM, USA, including Ten American Painters & the Hoosier Group/School, etc: (32)

Historiography: Until about 1965 American Impressionism had been more or less forgotten & only a handful of mostly expatriate artists were well known. During the 1970s there was an upsurge of interest & major studies (Hoopes & Boyle) were devoted to the American movement Gerdts1980 p9 etc [Nevertheless American Impressionism is still undeservedly downplayed.] The Yale Dictionary only devotes five lines to Hassam, who is described as “the leading American Impressionism” and Chase is completely ignored L&L. Moreover, the American movement continues to receive little or no attention in some standard texts & where an individual artist is, like Chase, mentioned his or her work is virtually dismissed as catering for upper-class art patrons who delighted in material acquisition Doss p39, Groseclose pp 29-30 but see p56.

Background: In 1886 Durand-Ruel’s held a successful New York exhibition of French Impressionist paintings, including Manet, Degas, Monet, Morisot, Pissarro, Renoir, Sisley & Cassatt. This was a turning point for Impressionism in America Gerdts1984 p12. There was a belief promoted by Dr George Beard in the phenomenal beauty of the American girl due to climate & the way in which their mental facilities were stretched. The inferiority of European women was thought to be reflected in their homely faces in its art Gay pp 346-7

Development: Grez lost its appeal for Americans who turned to Giverny from 1885 with Metcalf, Breck etc moving from Tonalism to Impressionism NGArtinP pp 135, 140, 142;. Robinson also adopted Impressionism at Giverny under Monet’s influence NGArtinP pp 142, 145. However, Hassam did not go there NGArtinP p145. Ten American Painters (or The Ten) were New York & Boston artists most of whom were Impressionists. They exhibited together during 1898-1918 after they had left the Society of American Artists. The group was organised by Twachtman, Weir & Hassam; & other members were Benson, De Camp, Dewing (who was not a true Impressionism), Metcalf, Robert Reid; Simmons, Tarbell & also Chase, after Twachman’s death. They wanted to improve the quality of their exhibitions; they decried overcrowding & desired smaller & more harmonious shows inspiring quiet contemplation, in line with Whistler’s practice TurnerEtoPM p392. American Impressionism was soon regarded not as foreign & radical but as American & conservative. Their beautiful women in white were seen as the ideal American girl: clean, wholesome, active, & lovely. With the popularity of their work in public exhibitions & their prominent role within the artistic establishment American Impressionist painters were dominant in art circles at the turn of the 20^th century NGArtinP p50.

Characteristics: It is asserted that American Impressionists were more poetic & less naturalistic than those in France Bjelajac p281. It is also said that they had a more conservative approach to composition & the representation of figuresTurnerRtoI p170. Their luminosity & intensity of colour was learned in particular from Monet while the solidity & substance of their figure drawing derived from their Parisian training. Their figural scenes have carefully delineated models but freely brushed settings often with beautiful women in white. Social issues were rarely addressed NGArtinP pp 49-50. Joyousness was a general feature of American Impressionism Gerdts1984 p63

Regional: The first such grouping was the Hoosier School in Indiana, as represented led by John Ottis Adams & Theodore Steele, its leader. They painted colourful, light-filled landscapes. Other groupings included the Boston School (Tarbell & his followers Hale, De Camp, & Paxton) who in 1890s under Vermeer’s influence became subtle Tonalists & painted polished portraits & elegant softly lit interiors with contemplative young women. [However, it is therefore questionable how many of the school’s members can be described as Impressionists. Paxton has not.] In Connecticut there was the Old Lyme colony (Hassam, Metcalf, Rook); & In Pennsylvania a group centred around New Hope (Redfield, Garber) Gerdts1980 pp 14, 103, Gerdts1984 pp 110, 169-70. There was also the Giverny Group who in 1910 exhibited together in New York (Frieseke, Rose, etc) with their paintings of gardens, parasols & nudes in brilliant warm sunlight Gerdts1984 p236.

Painters: John Adams; Benson; Breck; Theodore Butler; Chase; William Chadwick; DeCamp; Dewing; Frieseke; Garber; Glackens; Greacen; Philip Hale; Marsden Hartley; Hassam; Ernest Lawson; Melchers; Metcalf; Potthast; Prendergast; Redfield; Joseph Raphael; Robert Reid; Robinson; Rook; Guy Rose; Sargent; [Schofield]; Simmons; Theodore Steele; Tarbell; Twachtman; Vonnoh; J. Alden Weir; Turner RtoI p170, EtoPM p392; NGArtinP p228; OxDicArt; Gerdts1984 (if two paintings) pp 281-6

LOOKING BACKWARDS, 1860-1926 (25)

Term: My own. The intention here is to deal with paintings of varying subject matter that look back seemingly with regret or nostalgia. They were not the paintings of one particular movement but works of a certain broad type. Such paintings are the polar opposite of those in the Section that deals with Modern Life Paintings, Victorian Era. Some of them depict time past, often with figures in 18^th century dress, but others depict a way of life, social scene &/or environment which although current was rapidly passing away. Yet others painted a make-believe & whimsical world where, if it is anywhere, is in the past. By definition all of these backward-looking paintings are not entirely realistic but contain a strong element of idealisation. Moreover, unlike the works that can be regarded as Rural Naturalism, they were not inspired by Bastien-Lepage but are in the tradition of William Collins & others who were painting at the beginning of the Victorian era.

Subject Matter: The predominant form contains figures, & buildings in which the figures are set against extensive landscape backgrounds. These buildings are mostly quaint old cottages with small windows & flower filled gardens, & the figures are of an assorted rustic nature including fiddlers, pedlars & old folks. Young & happy children are also much in evidence often with mothers or grandparents or, when older, playing games. The sun is usually shining & it almost never rains. Marital & parent-child relationships are loving & harmonious & the femme fatale, which was such a feature of the period, is nowhere to be seen. It is a bountiful world as indicated by the frequent harvest scenes in which the reapers are often at rest. Classic works of this type were produced in England by Helen Allingham & Birkett Foster. However, works of a similar ethos were, for instance, painted in Munich. Here there were artists who specialised in genre works with jolly peasants, monks consuming beer in rowdy groups, & naughty servant girls Dunlop p240, Artnet, Wikip. Works of a different but manifestly backward-looking type were also painted by former Rural Naturalists who turned to fanciful paintings of pure & posed young adolescent girls in antique dress & pseudo-mythological scenes. Gotch’s The Child Enthroned, is an example of the former, & A Dream Princess by Elizabeth Stanhope Forbes an example of the latter. Costume pieces of those in Regency [or 18^th century] dress also came into fashion. The Regency period was by then sufficiently romantic to be used as a setting for costume pieces & earlier periods provided subjects with a popular appeal such as besotted cavaliers, laughing monks & lecherous highwaymen Maas p240. Works that can be described as backward looking continued to be painted during the War & Inter-War Period. During 1914-23 Jamieson Boyd Hurry commissioned several artists to paint British historical scenes & decorative schemes of this type were undertaken at many civic buildings & the Palace of Westminster E&L pp 42–3.

Background:

(i) The Thinkers: In 1850 Emerson concluded on a visit to England that there was no country in which so absolute a homage was paid to wealth & declared that the Englishman laboured three times as many hours in the course of a year as any other European Emerson pp 125-8. However, by 1850, or not long after, many of the foremost British thinkers had already turned their backs on industrialisation & the pursuit of material progress: Dickens, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold &, above all, Ruskin Wiener pp 30-40. The latter thundered against a capitalist system which he believed to be dedicated to making money & by implication he was saying that the size of the national income was of no importance . He appears to have believed that where trade & payment were involved nothing was added in the process of production because the profit earned , i.e., the surplus over & above cost, was an evil.] Clark1964 pp 274-5, 298-9. His critique of competitive capitalism was reinforced by William Morris who appears to have recognised that one of the weaknesses of an unregulated market system was that firms could increase their profits by for instance polluting the atmosphere with smoke Briggs pp 131-2

(ii) Back to the Future: The great Victorian thinkers did not in the main take a rosy view of the past with Carlyle as the great exception. Moreover, it was the [traditionalists & conservatives, such as Pugin, who looked backwords]. Marx & Engels looked forwards, & criticised the Utopian Socialists for wanting to cramp the modern means of production & exchange . During the latter part of the 19^th century there was a dramatic change & an important part of the Socialist movement, inspired by Ruskin, Thoreau & the communitarian theories of Tolstoy & later Kropotikin, opposed industrialism. There was a brief but important flowering of idealistic Utopias which included Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backwards in 1887 & ended with News from Nowhere by William Morris in 1891. Other key works were Merrie England by Robert Blatchford, 1894, & Civilisation its Cause & Cure by Edward Carpenter, 1889. They contained a rich mixture of back to the land, fulfilled craftsmen living in village communities, & a simple but happy life of rational dress & vegetarianism. Such visions were but an aspect of a social change which embraced the Arts & Crafts Movement & the English folk-song revival. During the latter part of the 19^th century many of the affluent moved out of town. They purchased & upgraded of rural cottages, they built country houses in semi-traditional styles, & they shifted to leafy & low-density suburban areas, [such as Hampstead Garden Suburb & Cauldy Village on the Wirral] Barker pp 163-4, M&E p88, Ensor pp 334-5, Searle pp 598, 602-5. These dwellings became the homes of second or third generation industrialists & business men who no longer lived in the cities or at their works as did Thornton in North & South See Hoppen p335 .

Painters:

(a} Great Britain: Helen Allingham, Thomas Baker; Henry Boddington; William Collins; Thomas Creswick; Elizabeth Forbes]; Birket Foster; [Thomas Cooper Gotch]; Frederick Lee; Sidney Percy; William Shayer; John Brandon Smith; Edward Williams; Frederick Witherington Wood1999 pp 85-7.

(b) Germany: Edward Gruetzner Dunlop p240

MAGIC REALISM: (50)

Term: Magic Realism was coined in 1924 by Franz Roh & used in his celebrated book of 1925 entitled post-Expressionism, which was subtitled Magic Realism. Problems of the Most Recent European Painting. He included both Neue Saachlichkeit & other painters (Miro, Picasso, Severini, etc) who used sharp-focus detail Roh pp 111-2, OxDicMod, Hayward p7. The term was subsequently extended to cover all sharp-focus naturalistic painting which, because of paradoxical elements or strange juxtapositions, convey a feeling of unreality; or where painters tried to make their improbable, fantastic & dream-like visions appear convincing through an exact realistic technique. The term was used by Alfred Barr in his 1943 exhibition at MoMA entitled American Realists & Magic Realists OxDicMod

Influences: If it was legitimate to systematise & tidy up landscape like Cezanne, it must have been thought appropriate to regularise the human face & body. Cubism implied that cubes & other regular shapes should be given priority. If so, industrial buildings & plant with their regular forms were a desirable subject for painting.

Context: If one looks hard enough & below the surface there has never been an age of quiet content. The period prior to the Great War was no exception. Nevertheless, the stresses & strains of the inter-war period were surely exceptional. This was a period which began with the fall of monarchies that had existed for centuries, the wholesale redrawing of national boundaries, even that of the UK. Communism was established in Russia, the Fascists gained power in Italy & then Spain, extreme disorder in Germany was followed before long by Nazism, & there was an economic depression of unprecedented magnitude. Although there were sunny intervals & some hopeful developments both political & social, it was a disconcerting & strange period. According to Wieland Schmied, “The Neue Sachlichkeit painter feels himself to have been set down in a world whose interconnections he does not understand & whose motion he does not control Hayward1979 p12. That the inter-war period gave rise to pictures that make strange but try in highly unsatisfactory age to preserve order & cling to reality is hardly surprising. Some pictures of this period do have a direct political & social meaning but they do not belong here See Political Art/Tendenzkunst

Development: The desire for a return to order & “the call to order” (the last being the title of a book by Jean Cocteau published in 1926), which was so evident in the period following the First World War, suggests that this was when Magic Realism began] OxDicMod. However, the movement significantly predates the outbreak of war. In critical writings during the decade preceding the conflict (gathered together in 1912) Maurice Denis was a vocal champion of classicism. He thought that the new classicism of the 1900s was rooted in the work of Cezanne & the post-Impressionists. There was a widespread hostility to Impressionism, & its preoccupation with the ephemeral effects of light C&M p17. De Chirico was an important forerunner, though he must also be counted as a pioneer of Surrealism OxDicMod

Magic Realism mainly flourished from the 1920s to the 1940s, but there were some followers in the 1950sTurnerEtoPM p239. There was a strong School in the Netherlands during 1930s (Koch, Pyke, Willinck) OxDicMod. Among the notable modern American Artists that were included by Barr were Hopper, Shahn, Sheeler & Wyeth M&B1943 pp 8, 22-3, 52-3, 58-9 . Magic Realism has strong affinities with the Scuola Romana of the 1930s, the Surrealism of Magrite & Dali, & the work of George Tooker & Peter Blume OxDicMod, TurnerEtoPM p239. However Magic Realism is differing because the strange nature of Surrealist painting is made manifest.

Unheimlich: In 1919 Freud published an essay (The Uncanny) in which he discussed the “heimlich”, meaning familiar & homely, & its opposite the “unheimlich”. He said that the distinctive quality of the uncanny is that of something strange yet familiar, something we know but are not at home with. It is the unheimlich which characterises much interwar painting Prendeville pp 55-6

Characteristics: Modern Realist paintings are quintessentially realist because the figures & objects they depict are clear, solid, plastic; & colours are of an expected type. Moreover, the paintwork is precise, usually with high degree of finish Roh p113, E&L pp 10-1, Hayward1979 p13, Ateneum pp 87, 89. Nevertheless they are sufficiently strange & unusual for them to be described as magic, albeit in a rather loose sense. This sense embraces what appears curious, puzzling or ambivalent but not so magic as to be completely unearthly or surreal. The scenes they show are conceivable & might, for instance, be seen on the stage, with special lighting effects, or as a result of sustained observation. Nor do Magic Realist paintings have an obvious symbolic content, depict scenes from literature or historical events whether real or imagined, or qualify as expressionistic See E&L p11, 52. There is nothing obvious about Magic Realism. Indeed, the absence of the obvious is a key requirement.

Paintings are often puzzling but on close examination they, like Victorian narrative pictures, yield up their secrets. In Magic Realism the puzzle is well-nigh insoluble. It is also comprehensive. Except at the most superficial level, they pose the problem of what if anything is happening or what the personae are thinking. The problem extends to the painter because they provoke the question of what the artist had in mind.] Hopper was once asked by a curator, puzzled by the mysteriously alluring sense of absence in a painting, to provide further insight only to receive the reply that explanation was as difficult as painting BKM p86. Ruskin said that paintings had to be read. Magic Realist paintings are as difficult to read as a legible text in an unknown language for which there is no dictionary.]

A related & important feature is that the pictures are objective, they lack warmth, often to the point of coldness & they eschew obvious humour Ateneum p25, 86, E&L p11. Moreover, the figures are posed & statuesque, they seldom display any emotion, are usually unsmiling, almost never look at each other but gaze out at us from eyes that have been specially emphasized, or alternatively they pointedly look elsewhere. They produce the sensation that time has been suspended. Perspective is also subtly distorted in order to make strange, & the works are often painted from a high or low vantage point Ateneum pp 24, 41, 46-8, 51-2, 55, 59, 65, 78, Hayward1979 pp 42-3, 66, 70, 82, L&P pp 125-8, 131-33, 135, 137, 139, 141, 143, 145 et al, Jennings pp 76-9, Rose p109, etc, etc

Geography: Magic Realism was a world-wide movement & there were important sub-groups in Germany, Italy, Great Britain & America E&L p16, Ateneum p14. However, it should be noted that some of the groupings that have been treated as Magic Realist [contain painters that do not quality] E&L p16. [This is true of Neue Sachlichkeit in Germany & of British Realist Painting in the 1920s & 1930s. On the other hand, Magic Realist artists are frequently assigned to groupings which include painters of a very different type. It is, however, possible to establish the criteria for inclusion as a Magic Realist & to identify those painters who qualify, though there will, of course, be borderline cases. One major example is Stanley Spencer. His work has many of the features of Magic Realism but does not fit well into the category because of its symbolic, religious & emotional content.

Painters:
(a) Italian: Felice Casorati, De Chirico, Cagnacio Di SanPietro, Achille Funi, Ubaldo Opi, Gino Severini Ateneum [This is preliminary list for artists with two or more suitable images or who are itemised in OxDicMod]
(b) German: Davringhausen Grossberg, Hoerle, Hubbuch, Raderscheidt, Radziwill, Schad, Schlichter, Scholz, Schrimpf [This is a preliminary list obtained by inspection from the images in Hayward. All the artists have two or more images] [; Aewrboe; Fritsch; Jurgen; Kanoldt; Radersceidt; Radziwill; Wegner;
French: [De Lemprika]; Henri Heraut, Robert Humblot, Jean Lasne, Alfred Pellan, Georges Rohner, Pierre Tal-Coat Ateneum p13 [Herbhin]
Dutch: A. Carel Willinck, Jos Albert, Louis, Buisseret, Raoul Hynckes, Dick Ket, Pyke Koch, Kor Postma, Rodolphe Strebelle, Charley Toorop, Gustaff van de Woestinje Ateneum p14
British: Mary Adstead; Harry Allen; Maxwell Armfield, Edward Baird; Margaret Barker; Alan Beeton; Pamela Bianco; Gerald Brockhurst; Ralph Chubb; John Cosmo Clark; Gerald Cooper; James Cowie; John Downton; Fleetwood-Walker; Meredith Frampton; David Jagger; Colin Gill, Gluck; Sir Herbert Gunn; Edward Halliday; Harold Harvey; Keith Henderson; Winifred Knights; Stanley Lewis; John McKenzie; Malcolm Milne; Sir Thomas Monnington: Harry Morley; Alberto Morocco; Thomas Nash; Algernon Newton; James McIntosh Patrick; Eric Ravilious; Harry Riley; Albert Rutherston; John Souter; Gilbert Spencer; Charles Spencelayh; Mark Symons: James Tucker; Harold Williamson E&L [A very tentative list]
(d) American: Hopper; Sheeler; Wood, Wyeth & related Albright [Again provisional] Demuth; O’Keefe; Sheeler; [Murphy; Stella;]

MANNERISM: (6)

Term: It is a word derived from the Italian maniera as used to mean style. Originally maniera was held to be a desirable attribute of art because it meant style in the sense of being stylish. However, in the 17^th century it came to mean stylised by Bellori & others, i.e., not based on reality but on stylistic convention. Artists who displayed what came to be regarded as its negative aspects were said by Lanzi in 1792 to display mannerism which means mannerism Shearman pp 17-19. Mannerism is now a neutral term for an important Movement which originated in Italy around 1520 L&L

Historiography:
(a) General: The period from the High Renaissance to about 1600 was thought by Bellori et al to be one of decline in which there was a servile imitation of the great masters, especially Michelangelo’s exaggerations Friedlaender1925 pxi. Around 1915 there were the first serious investigations of Mannerism by Friedlaender etc. In 1919 Werner Weisback stressed its abstracting & stylising mentality. Max Dvorak who had a late starting date for Mannerism, identified it in1920 with a spiritual crisis in the 16^th century Friedlaender1925 pxii. He saw it as a turning towards spiritual absolutes, as in the Middle Ages, & a reaction against fidelity to sensuous nature Gomb1966 p106. It should be noted that Mannerism was recognised by Wolfflin Wolfllin1899 p202;
(b) Phases: Friedlaender distinguished between an early creative anti-classical phase of Mannerism & a later period of exaggerated & mannered work. The latter was to be sharply distinguished by Craig Smyth who in 1963 termed it “Maniera” Friedlaender1925 pp xv, 51, NGArt1986 p240. There are indeed some who prefer not to describe the earlier period as Mannerism but to merely view it as transitional Hall1999 pxiii. (c) Extent: Artists like Peter Bruegel have been included by O. Benesch in his Art of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, 1947 Friedlaender1925 pp xiv-xv

Background:
(a) Disturbing Developments: [In 1517 Luther nailed up his theses & the Protestant Reformation began. During 1524-5 Peasants’ Wars took place in Germany.]
(b) Politico-religious: In 1527 the Sack of Rome took place by a marauding French army. This was seen as a retribution for moral decline & luxury Turner RtoI pp 188-9, EBrit, DaviesN p508. In 1529 Clement VII made peace with the emperor (Treaty of Barcelona) & France relinquished Italy to Spain (Treaty of Cambrai) EBrit. The Papacy which had hitherto been progressive was now dominated by Spain & became become reactionary Blunt1940 p104. In 1530 the Medicis ousted the Florentine Republic with Clement’s help & the city now became a secular autocracy EBrit, Blunt1940 p104.
(c) Catholicism: The Counter-Reformation took place. In 1540 the Jesuits were approved & in 1542 the Holy Office was established to supervise the Inquisition. The Council of Trent met during 1546-7, 1551-2, & 1562-3. In 1557 the Holy Office’s announced it First Index of forbidden books. The austere & fanatical Pius V, the former Inquisitor-General, was Pope from 1566 to 1672 Davies pp 490, 496-7. The extent to which the Council’s decrees regarding religious images were enforced differed according to the personality of the bishop personality NGArt1986p43. In 1582 Paleotti, the Archbishop of Bologna, published a treatise on the reform of religious painting inspired by the Council L&L. Sixtus V, 1585-92, was more pragmatic & in defiance of Spain favoured Henry of Navarre. However, he commissioned pedestrian Counter-Reformation work for the Vatican Library Friedlaender1955 pp 60-6

Causes, differing views of:
(a) Antal (Marxist): Mannerism was anticipated by the late 15^th century excited Gothic of the Savonarola movement during a period of economic decline & haute bourgeois weakness. There was a corresponding upheaval in Florence in 1620s, in which the middle & lower bourgeoisie played a large part, with its Savonarolesque features & intense Mannerism. Under the Duchy, & with the diversion of trade & the decay of the bourgeoisie, there was a medievalist revival & a new Mannerism that was courtly, refined, scholarly, irrational & unrealistic Antal1966 pp 159-60;
(b) Shearman (Cultural): The causes are not seen as political or economic. This is shown, for instance, by way in which Venetian artists, despite economic & social disturbance worked on untroubled Shearman pp 39-40. Developments in patronage, with the desire to have works by selected artists for display in galleries, led artists to try to provide virtuoso creations Shearman p44. Art was now seen as having less of a devotional or ceremonial purpose & of being more self-sufficient. It became an almost divine creative activity Shearman pp 44-8. Mannerism was not a reaction against the High Renaissance but a development Shearman p49;
(c) Gombrich: Mannerism reflects a crisis in how art was regarded when it became apparent that there was an inherent contradiction in the Italian Renaissance concept of artistic progress. Around 1520 Italian art lovers seemed to agree that painting had, with Raphael & Michelangelo, reached the peak of perfection. One response was to try to outdo Michelangelo by painting crowds of nudes in difficult postures. Another apparent response was that perfection was no longer interesting & exciting: the aim was now to produce work that was startling & unexpected Gomb1950 pp 277-8, Gomb1966 pp 3, 9 but see pp 103-4

Development: [A proper sub-Section necessary] Mannerism was dominant in Rome until about 1600 & continued with Arpino NGArt1986 p252, L&L. It was the major movement in France until 1619 when Freminet died Allen p20,TurnerRtoI p113

Characteristics: According to a classic formulation Mannerism is a way of seeing which not only rejects the notion of reproducing the optical impression but also the creation of an ideal image of what should be seen. Instead of this normative attitude the Mannerist creates what he does not see but what from purely autonomous artistic & subjective motives he has the right & duty to create & therefore let others see Friedlaender1925 pp 6–8. Mannerism attempted to distil a style not by studying nature but from the work of earlier painters through exaggeration & stylisation Newton1952 p10 . [This approach led to a set of departures both from High Renaissance painting & in many cases from reality.] Heads were shrunk, necks were elongated, limbs were stretched, & perspectival illusion was violated or disregarded Friedlaender1925 pp 7, 13, 17, 30-3, 38-9. [The Madonna of the Long Neck by Parmigianino illustrates all of these features.] Others included the crowding of figures, their stylised movements, & the way in which bodies wrath, cavort & entwine Friedlaender1925 pp 16, 20-2, 25, 29, 30-2, 35, 56, 60. Foreground figures are seen from the back & the previous contrapposto stance was replaced by the figure serpentinite See Section 5 for the terms, Friedlaender1925 pp 25, 27, Shearman pp 81-3. Mannerist colour was often distinctive with cold, iridescent hues obtained through wash techniques in which little pigment was used Friedlaender1925 pp 55, 60. Although the overall effect is anything but realistic & robust details are often veristic in order to enhance Mannerist artfulness. There was also an emphasis on the secondary aspects of a subject to gain more freedom for imaginative invention Fuchs pp 26-7, 34. In landscape there was often a range of craggy mountains & in the distance a river, sea coast or estuary Clark1949 pp 56, 95. Mannerist art should above all else be seen as sophisticated [& to an increasing extent] as intellectual. Its practitioners were not trying to depict brutality, violence or passion but to produce works that were rarefied, polished, [& motivated by the desire to be original . Like High Renaissance Painting Mannerism was a search for idealisation & beauty but these were of a new type. They were characterised by elegance, complexity & precocity: by what has been described as a new ethereal & ecstatic spirituality or has been seen as a dream world Shearman pp 17, 19 , 25, Friedlaender1925 pp 24-5, Hauser2 pp 90, 95.

Working Practice: It became the norm for Mannerist painters in Roman to omit the life drawings stage between making an initial sketch & the final execution of the fresco from the cartoon by assistants. Raphael, in contrast, had employed three stages Hall2011 p92.

Painters:
(a) Proto: [Botticelli’s late work]
(b) Italy: the Alberti brothers; Alessandro Alori; Arpino; Bassano; Beccafumi; Bronzino; Cerano & Crespi (early); Conte; Il Cigoli (early); Lomazzo; Orsi; Parmigianino; Poccetti; Pomarancio; Pontormo; Procaccini; Privatematicio; Rosso; Salviati; Samaccini; Tibaldi; Trotti; Vasari; Taddeo & Federico Zuccaro pp Friedlaender1925 pp 42, 60-1, 67, 69,79, L&L, NGArt1986p252; Shearman;
(c) Spain: Vargas Brown1998 p41, El Greco Brown1986 p41, Friedlaender pp 9, 52.(d) France: Bellange; Cerceau the Elder; Dubois; Dubreuil; Freminet; Goujon, Pilon L&L, Shearman pp 16, 174;
(e) Netherlands: Bloemaert’s; Coninxloo; de Gheyn; Goltzius; Van Haarlem; Van Mander; Wtewael Shearman pp 28, 30, Fuchs pp 23, 33, NGUtrecht p22
(f) Central Europe Spranger (Prague), Kellerthaler (Dresden) Shearman p30

MODERN LIFE PAINTING, VICTORIAN ERA: (24)

Term: Victorian modern-life painting has been recognised as a category by Chistopher Wood, & somewhat less clearly by Julian Treuherz & Graham Reynolds Wood1976; Treuherz1993, Reynolds1987. [It is painting of a particular type rather than the work of painters who belong to a distinct movement with a distinctive subject matter.] Many of the Victorian modern life artists also painted literary & historic subjects Wood1976 p9. [A feature of 19^th century painting was the way in which artists now often produced works that belong to genres that were markedly different.]

It may be wondered why the Victorian era has been singled out. Modern life subjects would appear at first sight to have been painted ever since Bruegel. The only change it might be argued was what was modern at the time. This however is an unsatisfactory thesis. Previous painters of modern life had, like Wilkie, been looking back to the genre that was produced in the Low Countries during the 17^th century, or their work was picturesque in the tradition of Morland & Wheatley Wood1976 p9.

The modern life painters of the Victorain era were not looking back but concentrating on what was new & distinctive, & they were not concerned with the picturesque. Indeed, during the early Victorian period many artists & critics were prejudiced against modern-life pictures because of academicism & the way in which their own age was regarded as ugly & picturesque. This is shown by the hostile reaction of critics, & most fellow-artists, to Frith’s modern-life paintings WoodC1976 p11.

Background:

(a) By the beginning of the Victorian period if not before, it had become abundantly evident that a new & distinctive historical era had begun. The concept of industrialism was introduced by Carlyle in the 1830s & Engels used the term in his Condition of the Working Class in England, 1845 WilliamsR p167, Engels p9. The belief in economic growth, & also social advance, dates back at least to 1848 when Macaulay in his History of England argued that every aspect of life in Britain had been transformed for the better Macaulay1 pp vii, 319-29.

(b) At the time when modern life paintings began to be produced there was a new awareness of social problems. The existence of poverty had of course been recognised but, like sin, it was thought to be largely inevitable. However, the agitation of the poor during the Chartist era, together with parliamentary inquiries, compelled other social classes to inquire what was wrong & what action could be taken Woodward p147. In his book Chartism Thomas Carlisle had provoked debate & drawn attention to the “Condition of England Problem”. [The belief that the Victorian period was a period of complacency is wide of the mark. Although there were perhaps periods of respite, such as the Palmestonian interlude, the Victorians were for most of the time worried about almost everything. Here are a few examples chosen almost at random: the need for more churches, papal encroachment, the corn laws, the need for educational & administrative reform, Ireland & India, white slavery…. The Victorians were not only concerned but also had a passion for discovery & new fields of activity. It was an age of Enthusiasm that was at times almost demonic. These may seem like empty generalisations but what of] Mr Gladstone addressing a crowd of 5000 or 6000 at Blackheath for almost two hours in the cold mist of an October afternoon. To begin with many were hostile but, in the end, there was a hurricane of applause Morley2 pp380-1. Or consider Charles Darwin & his patient & deducted accumulation of the evidence for evolution from 1842 until almost up to his death in 1882 Parry p492. And as Lytton Strachey observed Florence Nightingale was possessed by a Demon Strachey p297.

(c) The painting of modern life subjects took place when a new type of novel had developed. Hitherto the prevalent form had been the Silver Fork School, or Fashionable Novel, which flourished from about 1825 to 1850. Here the lives of the wealthy & fashionable were held up for admiration, although it was argued by Bulwer-Lytton, one of their principal authors, that they ultimately exposed the falseness & vulgarity of patrician society. Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, 1847-8, was the apogee of the silver-fork novel. A very different type of fiction then made its appearance, although Dickens’ Oliver Twist was published as early as 1837. Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte appeared in 1847, & North & South by Elizabeth Gaskell in 1855 Sutherland p577. [Despite their manifest differences, these are all novels with an emotional appeal.]

(d) Another important development were novels containing a new type of heroine. She was in the final decades of the 19th century to be known as the New Woman, displaying a confidence & stamina which had hitherto been a male prerogative. However, such women date back much earlier & were a feature of the sensation novels of the mid-century, in particular those of Wilkie Collins. In The Woman in White , 1860, Marion Halcombe climbs out of a first-floor window at dead of night onto a narrow strip of flat room & then, avoiding hazardous flower pots, moves on a considerable distance in order to hear what male villains are saying below; & in No Name, 1862, Magdalen Vanstone bewitches & then marries a man in order to try to recover a fortune lost because her parents were never legally married Collins pp 286-9, Sutherland pp 466-7 . Magdalen had previously been a theatrical impresario & partly owed her success to the being a woman in an unexpected type of work CollinsCT p220

(e) The café-concert was an important development in Paris during the second half of the 19^th century. During the first half dances & open-air concerts were increasingly numerous but only occasional. In 1865 government restrictions on the use of theatrical costume were removed & this led to the establishment of numerous café-concerts & by 1900 there were perhaps 150. Here visitors in casual dress would eat & drink while watching the show. They were not places where respectable bourgeois ladies, such as Mary Cassatt, felt able to visit & guidebook writers told tourists to stay away. There were dirty songs, dirty jokes & sexy acts. At the Moulin Rouge a celebrated performer was able to fart at will & the hilarity was such that nurses had to be employed to carry away the women whose corsets had split & been reduced to agony or collapse. Ordinary cafes also had an increasing role & by 1900 which was their heyday there were 27,000 in Paris where they were a feature of Huysmans great boulevards Zeldin2 pp 699-702, Matthews pp121-2. [Here pausing prostitutes would sometimes gather for refreshment.] Outside Paris there were informal open air dining places in the semi-suburban places, such as Bugala, that were frequented & painted by the Impressionist Gaunt Pl 43, Wikip

Subjects, Development & Characteristics:

In 1843 Redgrave, with his Poor Teacher, began a series of paintings of modern life in contemporary dress. During the 1850s & 60s the vogue for modern subjects was at a peak. Artists then returned to their normal subjects, although Hicks, Crowe, & Houghton were exceptions CWood1976 pp 13-14, Reynolds p36. In France Manet’s Music in the Tuileries Gardens, c1862, which was a crowd scene, was perhaps the first modern-life painting [& such works continued to be produced throughout the 19^th century] Reyburn p17. Menzel in Germany painted a series of big city & crowd works from 1867 to 1893 K&R-R pp 86, 333, 442-3.

As might be expected these paintings often feature rail travel & the reading & the delivery of letters, penny postage having been introduced in 1840. Railway paintings appear to have begun as early as 1850 with Lefevre Cranston’s Waiting at the Station. This is also an example of the modern crowd scene which was to become so prevalent. As reflected in paintings, trains were used by all sections of the community & for widely different purposes. Daumier pictured The Third-Class Carriage in 1856; Charles Rossiter showed a day excursion in To Brighton & Back for 3/6d, 1859; & in The Travelling Companions, 1862, by Augustus Egg there are two young women seemingly alone & travelling abroad. Frith’s Life at the Seaside, 1854, deserves mention as the first modern beech scene & the first of his crowd paintings WoodC1976 pp 169, 187-8. Manet’s Music in the Tuileries Gardens,1862, was both his first painting of modern urban life & an early example of a scene in a modern city Reyburn p15. [The modern city, albeit in a different form, became particularly evident in French works because it was in Paris that there was extensive demolition by Haussman & the construction of the new boulevards which appear in so many paintings.]

Although the boom in modern life paintings may have passed a peak, they continued to be produced. Paradoxically the leading artist in Britain was the French painter Tissot who during the 1870s portrayed English society from army sergeant to aristocrat, & later back in France the smart female shop assistant Wood1999 pp 258-62, M&W p67, Matyjaszkiewicz pp 47. This was an example of the new way in which were women were depicted. They were, for instance, occasionally shown as factory workers as in The Dinner Hour, Wigan, 1974 by Eyre Crowe. However, this was but an aspect of a much broader development Treuherz1987 Pl VII. During the Victorian era women were shown as having a new independence & initiative. Curiously this is perhaps most obvious in what has been termed the proposal composition. In such paintings, although the woman is not actually proposing marriage, she is the focus of attention. During the second half of the 19^th century, both in France & England, there were numerous paintings of a man & a woman in which her face & eyes are more detailed & in a stronger light, where the woman is frontal whereas the man is in profile, & where the man merely gazes at the woman but the woman’s response is more varied, emotional or considered, whether playful, serious, hesitant or resolute. Showing a Preference, 1860, by John Horsley is an early example & Renoir’s Dance in the Country, 1882-3, was a later one Kern pp 7, 42, 72.

One important type of modern life painting was the depiction of a social problem. Works of this type included the portrayal of the kept woman as in Homan Hunt’s Awakening Conscience, 1854; Egg’s Past & Present,1858, which shows the dire consequences when a wife commits adultery; those forced to emigrate as in The Last of England by Ford Madox Brown, 1855; the worn out worker in The Stonebraker by Henry Wallis, 1857; those too poor to get married in The Long Engagement, 1859, by Arthur Hughes; & gambling leading to bankruptcy as in Martineau’s Last Day in the Old House,1862. Later there were notable paintings by Orchardson that depict the breakdown of a marriage between & an aged upper-class man & young wife. They quality as modern life because of legal changes which meant that wives were no longer so dependent on husbands Wood1976 p37. It may be remarked that paintings in series, like those of Orchardson, were a feature of the modern life era, & were also produced by Egg, Hicks, & Abraham Solomon Treuherz pp 112-4.

There was a separate & important group of late Victorian painters who produced condition of England paintings, namely Fildes Holl & Herkomer. They all worked for The Graphic which was a socially conscious weekly magazine, established in 1869, for whom they provided illustrations which sometimes inspired paintings. A striking example is Fildes’ Admission to a Casual Ward,1874 Gillett p104, Wood1999 pp 266-7. Paintings of a somewhat similar type were produced in France by Raffaelli who from about 1879 began painting marginal members of society in the Parisian outskirts, such as his Ragpicker Lighting His Pipe Adler pp 106-7, Grove25 p846. What however was a French speciality were modern life paintings of men & women enjoying themselves at dances, café concerts indoors & ordinary cafes outside e.g., Harris pp 12, 39, 50, 64-5, Gaunt Pl 43

[One salient feature of so many of these paintings is that they invite close reading & have to be worked at. Indeed, this is essential for their full appreciation. They are not, like French Impressionist landscapes, an obvious & almost self-evident visual delight. Nor], as in French Realism, are they necessarily an objective & impartial depictions of contemporary life Nochlin1971 p13 etc. [Although they contain ample &, in some cases, an excessive quantity of information, they are not purely descriptive. They elicit sympathy or concern; or if nothing else they generate a more than mild interest in what is taking place. In other words, they have an emotional appeal or they provide the intellectual pleasure of detective work.] They were pictures that tell an ongoing story by means of clue objects etc, & which need to be read WoodC1976 p10 etc. Moreover, it appears that many of the Degas’ works, such as those dealing with laundry workers, are ambiguous & contradictory which forces the spectator into active rather than passive consumption LiptonE Ch 3, p187

Another important feature of modern-life paintings is that many of them contain more than one person. Indeed, they are often crowded & there is an absence of telling blank space. The exceptions here are paintings by Redgrave, Orchardson , Herkomer & Caillebotte that, for instance, feature seamstresses, governesses, unhappy couples, those on tramp & Parisian scenes WoodC1976 pp 55, 126, C&P p112, Treuherz1991 p167, Cunningham pp194-5. There tends as a result to be an absence of enhancing & telling blank space in many Victorian paintings & some like Work by Ford Madox Brown are over-crowded. However, crowding & crowd scenes enabled painters to present a wide screen view of society. Frith’s Ramsgate Sands & Derby Day was, as he said, the presence of “all sorts & conditions of men & women” & “the kaleidoscope aspect of the crowds”. He only embarked on his crowd scenes because the subject matter excited him & “the desire to represent everyday life took an irresistible hold Frith pp185, 218, 243, 272. [Hitherto paintings had seldom depicted those who belonged to different social classes in close proximity except where they were in church, or the relationship was of a master-servant or commercial nature. Now in British modern life paintings those in different social classes were shown together in other situations. Trains, unlike buses, had separate classes & it was on buses & at stations that social contact was in obvious evidence. George Joy in his Bayswater Omnibus depicted those from different social groups sitting next to each other, & John Morgan painted One of the People – Gladstone in an Omnibus, 1885 WoodC1976 pp 207-10,218-9 . One final point about modern-life painting was that it peaked in Britain during the 1850s & 1860s, which were boom years, & that artists then return to their normal subjects, although Hicks, Crowe, & Houghton were exceptions CWood1967 pp 13-14.

Painters:

(a) Britain: Egg; Egley; Elmore; Farmer; Fildes; Frith; Hicks; Herkomer; Holl; Houghton; Horsley; Legros; Bernard & Henry O’Neill; Osborn; Poole; Rankley; Redgrave; Abraham Solomon; William Small; Watts Treuherz Ch 5, Reynolds1987 Ch5, TurnerEto PM p357

(b) France: Jules Adler [or does he belong elsewhere?] Antigna; [Degas], Jeanron; Armand & Adolph Leleux, Manet, Pils [?], [Raffaelli]. Ribot, [Toulouse-Lautrec] Nochlin 1971, TurnerRtoI p270, Clark1973 p130.

(c) Belgium: Charles de Groux Norman1977

(d) Germany Menzel, Leibl, Trubner, Carl Schurch, Karl Hagemeister, Louis Eysen & Hans Thoma C&C pp 57-9

NATIONAL ROMANTICISM (23) 19th CENTURY

Concept & Term: This was a movement from the mid-19^th century & onward into the 20^th century. Its tenet was that the indigenous arts, history & folk tradition of a nation contributed to the spiritual & political survival of its people. The concept dates back to Novalis & Herder, & art historians employ the term Grove22 p540. Nevertheless, the movement appears to have received surprisingly little attention: the key texts on nationalism do not discuss the role of painting Gellner, Kedourie, Hobsbawm1992

Folk art & Folk Tales: These were an important source for National Romantic painting Grove22 p540. [Interest in this aspect of the national heritage was an important element in the Romantic Movement. However, there was from the mid-19^th century an increased focus on the history of the non-governmental classes, on folk literature, on traditional music, & on folk art. This was pioneered by historians; by the writers who unearthed, retold & manufactured folk stories; by those who collected folk artefacts & established the museums in which they were displayed; by those who sought out traditional songs & melodies; by composers who incorporated them in their works; & by those who sought to protect & revive the national language. It hardly needs to be said that this was an area in which the intellectual classes gave the lead. Curiously Eric Hobsbawm omitted to mention intellectuals in a chapter on the rise of nationalism.] Grove22 p540, Hobsbawm1987 Ch 6. [It would be wrong to view the preoccupation with language by the professional classes as a wholly disinterested activity. As the national language, e.g., Czech, would displace the official language, e.g., German, in lands that were seeking independence those members of the professional class that spoke the putative national language would have an advantage over those that only spoke the official language, e.g., German.]

Background: [Although nationalism has a long history, its modern history dates from the French Revolution & the Napoleonic Wars. The word nationality did not even come into general use until after 1789 Hobsbawm1962 p13. Until 1793 the revolutionaries had been internationalists, but with the extension of the eastern frontier up to the Rhine & the annexation of Belgium [France & its revolutionary government became nationalistic] Thompson p51. As part of his effort to enhance popular support for Napoleon & his expansionary designs, the regime promoted propaganda painting. The aim, readily taken up by David & other artists, was to picture Napoleon as a great & benevolent statesman & national leader of a glorious, brave & victorious army. After the Restoration there was an even more blatant & romantic Napoleon cult by Gross & other artists, who indulged in nostalgia for excitement they had lost & regret for the boredom they had gained Gellner p68.

Napoleon thought that the inhabitants of the conquered & defeated lands would welcome his abolition of the ancient regime NCMH9 pp 330-1. On the contrary invasion & defeat led to an upsurge & extension of Romantic Nationalism. After Napoleon’s crushing victory over Prussia at Jena in 1806 a programme of radical reform was carried out by a group of high officials. The army was reshaped . More than half the old Prussian army had been recruited from neighbouring states. National service was now introduced, conditions of service were improved, & officers were recruited on grounds of ability: it became a professional citizen army NCMH9 pp 268, 382-3 . Serfdom was abolished in 1810 with the aim of associating the people with the government. Forced labour & feudal dues were abolished & the peasants became free holders. However, in return the peasants, unless they could pay, had to surrender one-third or one half of their land. Although only better off peasants, & estate owners, were to benefit, the former serfs now felt they were fighting for their land & nation G&T pp 140-1, NCMH9, Hobsbawm1962 pp190-1

To begin with national consciousness was purely cultural, literary & folkloric. Then, during the period from 1830 to 1880 the concept of nationality was developed. The leaders & militants came from the liberal bourgeoisie & associated intellectuals. Those who in Germany glorified the state & paved the way for nationalism were mostly the sons of pastors, small famers & artisans (Fichte). They somehow managed to enter university often studying theology & surviving on minute grants, etc. Then they were looked down upon by an ignorant nobility who occupied the public employments to which they themselves aspired. Their frustration is shown by the pathetic outpourings of the young Herder. Nationalism among workers, servants & peasants was the last stage & tended to develop after the creation of the national state Taylor1992 pp12, 23, Kedourie pp 35-6, EBrit.

Location: National Romanticism was particularly evident

(a) [In countries which had achieved great military victories under a charismatic leader & then suffered crushing defeat, as in France under Napoleon.]

(b) In lands that were or had been subject to foreign domination, i.e. [Norway, Finland, the Baltic states, Poland, Hungary, the future Czech Republic, & the former colonies of Spain & Portugal in central & South America].

(c) In countries that had experienced recent unification [or where it was proving difficult, in particular Germany].

(d) In nations that felt menaced by international forces & developments, or which considered themselves to be part of a wider ethnic grouping. Russia feared the destruction of its traditional agricultural system & here Pan-Slavism had arisen Grove22 p540; See the Wanderers in Section 8.

The Great Leader: [An important background influence on National Romantic painting was the growing cult of the great man or great woman view of historical progress. The great & the good had, of course, always been celebrated. However, there was often something routine about their depiction. Saints & martyrs were expected to be good, & kings had inherited their positions &, all too often, were manifestly bad. What was distinctive during the 19^th century about the reinterpretation of history, & the construction of current history, was the emphasis on the heroic & non-hereditary leader. The leading exponent of the great man view of history was Hegel in his Lectures on the Philosophy of History with its glowing rhetoric on the role of the World-historical individual Hegel pp 31-5. Victor Hugo, the great Romantic, celebrated Cromwell as a national leader in his play Cromwell, 1827, & this was followed by poems in which Napoleon was idealised. This was the beginning of a cult in which Louis Philippe did his best to bolster his regime by celebrating the Emperor Britannica website, Guedella pp 21-7. The belief that there are men who personify the nation was widespread & was taken up by a whole army of historians including Michelet, & Carlyle [whose heroes were Cromwell & Friederick the Great] WilsonE p10

The Nation: Another part of the background to National Romanticism was the concept of the nation as a district entity. Once again, Hegel was a leading figure here, but it was Herder who first clearly propounded the idea. Every man belongs to some kind of group in which he feels at home & outside of which he feels cut off from his roots. Such feeling arises due to his language & the culture. Herder was not talking here about belonging to a race or nation & in his writings on literature showed a rare & sympathetic insight into the feelings of diverse peoples Berlin1999 pp 59-65, EB. Nevertheless, the way was now open for a far more intolerant form of nationalism, one which ultimately led to racism & genocide Joad1938 pp 624-5. It was pioneered by Fichte who in speeches in Berlin during 1807-8, when Napoleon was occupying the city, distinguished between a German nation consisting of those actuated by the notion of freedom & those who were strangers, outsiders. He called for Zwinger zur Deutchheitt, a man who would enforce Germanism: The Prussian king or if need be, somebody else Berlin2002 pp 68-70.

The ultimate stage was the belief in a Volksgeist, a national cum world spirit equivalent to God together with the belief that the individual has no independent existence. This curious concept arose due to the philosophic dilemma that was left unresolved by Kant. He argued that knowledge of the world was derived from incoherent sensations as transformed into objective experience by the perceiving self through the use of independent categories or mental endowments. If so, we do not know things as they really are –Kant’s things in themselves- & cannot be certain that they exist. Consciousness is the only certainty. Nevertheless, as Kant said, we are certain that there is an external world. Fichte attempted to solve the dilemma by postulating the existence of a universal consciousness, or gist, of which everything that happens is a manifestation. If so, as Schelling said, individuals are phantoms. Without the zeitgeist they would be nothing. As the nation is the instrument of the zeitgeist, it is this Volksgeist which embodies a nation’s culture Kedourie pp 24-30, Grove22 p540.

At first the pioneers of cultural nationalism busied themselves with recording folk tales & the compilation of dictionaries & grammars of the vernacular, i.e., peasant, but henceforth national language. Academies were formed, learned publications appeared & patriotic societies were established. However [during the peaceful period following the Napoleonic War] cultural nationalism lacked serious political purpose except in Poland where there was an important revolt in 1830 Hayes 62-3, Thomson1957 p133. [The 1848 Revolution led to a marked change & national independence movement arose in Italy & peripheral parts of the Austrian Empire, (as well as in Vienna as depicted in Anton Ziegler’s Barricades on the Michaelerplatz…) Norman 1987 p14. During the Revolution it became clear that Eastern Europe was a patchwork of ethnic groups & there was no such thing as painless national self-determination]. This was an illusion among nationalists like Mazzini who during 1833-4 established both a Young Italy & a Young Europe movement to run national committees for patriotic agitation in Switzerland, Poland & Germany Thomson1957 p171]. Self-government for the Slav population in Bohemia & Moravia would inevitably mean the transfer of power from the considerable German population, which was especially numerous in the towns. Prague was for instance a largely German city.]

The Development National Romantic Painting:

The celebration of Napoleon [& the earth-shaking national hero] began with Antoine–Jean Gros & his Battle of Nazareth, 1801. This was a sketch but Bonaparte Visiting the Plague-House of Jaffa was exhibited at Salon of 1804. Here Napoleon was depicted as if he were a miracle worker. It was followed by a bevy of paintings by Gros & others in which Napoleon appears as a sublime figure & his marshals are portrayed as belonging to a national pantheon Leymarie pp 52-5. German & Austrian resistance to the Napoleonic invasion was lauded in numerous works. In Austria Johann Kraft painted Archduke Charles with the Flag of the Zach Regiment at the Battle of Aspen, 1811. This marked the change in history painting to contemporary subject matter Wiesenberger p174. In Germany there were prints & paintings of the Lutzower Corps & notable patriotic works were painted by Caspar David Friedrich & his close friend Georg Kersting, namely The Chasseur in the Forest, 1814, by Friedrich, & Kersting’s the Wreath Maker, 1815, & On Outpost Duty, 1829. These three paintings depict the dense German woods which had been a powerful feature of its painting during the Northern Renaissance, & the works by Kersting depict traditional German costume See Northern Renaissance in Section 9, Wikip, Vaughan2004 pp 115, 148-9.

By this time landscape with figures of a truly Russian type had emerged as painted by Alexi Venetsianov, his Spring Ploughing during the 1820s being one example & Nikifor Krylov’s Winter Landscape, 1827 another Leek p26, Petrova pp72-3. The Return of St Vojtech to Bohemia, 1824, by Frantisek Tkadlik helped launch patriotic history painting in that region; & meanwhile Antonin Machek painted portraits of those involved in the Czech national revival Grove19 p894, & 31 p64. Giuseppe Bezzuoli’s Entry of Charles Viii into Florence, 1829 celebrated the Florentine Republic & paved the way for Risorgimento paintings Grove 3p904. The revolutions & revolts that began in 1848 were followed by an upsurge in national romantic painting in Eastern Europe & Italy. Notable Hungarian examples were National Guard, 1848, by Jozsef Borsos, & Laszlo Hunyadi Bids Farewell to His Friends, 1866, by Gyula Benczur. He is about to mount the scaffold having been condemned by the Austrian regime. There also paintings of the distinctive great central Hungarian plain, such as Landscape with Sweep Well by Karoly Marko the Elder, 1853 Pogany p7, Pl 2, 8, 13. The Polish revolt of 1863 inspired Jan Matejko to paint Homage to Prussia, 1864, & this he & other artists followed up with colourful works on the great moments in Polish history & the oppressed nation in conflict with the enemy Grove20 p810, & 25 p106. Somewhat earlier Eduardo Cano de la Pena had initiated National Romanticism in Spain with his Christopher Columbus in the Convent of La Rabida , 1856 Grove29 p284. In 1860 Victor Meirelles de Lima with his First Mass in Brazil had done the same in that country & from about 1870 the portrayal of episodes from Pre-Columbian history & the Spanish conquest became very popular in Mexico, as painted Felix Parra in the Cholula Massacre, 1877 Grove21 pp 61, 385.

Characteristics:

(a) Patriotic Historical Themes: [The favourite scenes were those in which men & women, whatever their rank in society, courageously stood up against foreign oppression. These included both national heroes & groups which had either resisted or had shown contempt for arrogant & oppressive outsiders. If these patriots were from the common people so much the better. There were also scenes where somebody was suffering because they opposed a violation of a traditional national practice & where aristocrats were betraying the nation. An important feature of the celebration of iconic national figures was that to an increasing extent they included not only those from the distant past but [also those who belonged to recent or current history. Moreover, they were not only statesmen & military or religious leaders but other figures from any walk of life who were considered worthy of inclusion in a national pantheon. In Russia Pavel Tretyakov commissioned or purchased are least eight Blakesley pp 51-2, 58, 69-70, 73, 78, 102.

In Mexico the nation was even extended backwards so as to include two episodes from pre-Colombian history Grove21 p385. And in Brazil it went still further with the depiction in 1881 of a mythical indigenous woman, Iracema, by Jose Maria de Medeiros. She is the heroine of novel who lives in an untouched natural setting & will give birth to a new predestined race Schwarcz p101, & Pl after p262. Yet slavery was not abolished until 1888 NCMH11 p527.

(b) Peasant Genre: [National Romantics viewed the pleasantry as the bed rock of the nation. They still spoke the national language & knew the folk tales & legends which the intellectuals were busy recording]. When artists came to paint peasant genre they did so under the influence of the French Realists. Millet, Jules Breton & Courbet had accorded the peasants a respect previously reserved for those in history paintings Grove12 p294 . There are numerous Russian examples including Vasily Surikov’s Old Market Gardener, 1882, & Sunday Reading at a Village School by Nikolai Bogdanov-Belsky Petrova pp 91, 112

(b) Landscape: This was seen as the embodiment of the national essence, frequently being shown as a wilderness unspoilt by the modern world & hence as an evocation of the eternal national spirit. Such landscapes showed places that were topographically unique, exceptionally monumental, or where there were distinctive meteorological or light effects. These features included waterfalls, canyons, volcanoes, geysers, glaciers & the effects of extreme weather conditions Grove22 p540. Or they depicted landscapes that were exceptional because they were, for instance, extremely flat as in Hungary, vast as in Mexico, or particularly fruitful. In Russia where National Romanticism became of crucial importance the terrain was depicted as possessing all these features: the flat & seemingly endless expanse of the Russian plane, the hot summer, the cold winter, & the dramatic change from one season to another. There were also paintings of the striking contrasts & light effects which arise where temperatures are very low & storms are frequent. The bounty of the grain lands was yet another subject & cause for celebration Petrova pp 77-8, 82, 90, 92-3, 98. In Norway, Sweden & Finland National Romanticism took the form of remote & wild landscapes that came to be regarded as national heart-lands, such as Karelia & the Aland archipelago in Finland Ateneum p70, Grove22 p540, Kent pp 128, 139.

(c) Forest: This was an important element in National Romantic art. Notable painters of dense woodland scenes included Ivan Schiskin in Russia who in the latter part of the century was dubbed the “Tzar of the Forest” Leek pp 58-60. In Sweden Prince Eugen was a prime exponent during the 1890s of National Romanticism with his atmospheric twilight [& mysterious forest] scenes Grove10 p648. [The connection of National Romanticism & the painting of forests was re-established in Canada around 1930 by Emily Carr] See Grove5 p846.

Painters:

(a) Brazil: Pedro Americo de Melo; Victor Meirelles de Lima; Jose Maria de Medeiros Grove1 p774, & 21 p61 , Schwarcz , after p262

(b) Canada: Emily Carr Grove5 p846

(c) Czech Republic: Antonin Machek; Joseph Mannes; Frantisek Tkadlik Grove8 p392, & 14 p586, & 31 p64

(d) Denmark: Christen Dalsgaard; Johan Exner; Frederik Vermehren Grove8 p735

(e) Ecuador: Rafael Troya Grove31 p380

(f) Finland: Albert Edelfelt; Gallen-Kallela; Pekka Halonen; Victor Westerholm Ateneum pp 70-1, 75, 82-90 Grove22 p540, Kent pp 128, 138-40

(g) France: Joseph-Louis-Hippolyte Bellange, David, Antoine-Jean Gros, Auguste Raffet See Section 1

(h) Hungary: Miklos Barabas; Gyula Benczur; Jozsef Borsof; Keleti; Liezenmayer; Karoly Lotz; Viktor Madarasz; Marko; Szekely; Mor Than; Sandor Wagner Szekely Grove 3 pp 702-3 & 14 p901; Pogany pp 6-7 [Check through Munkacsy]

(i) Iceland: Johannes Kjarval; Asgrimur Jonsson; Thorarinn Thorlaksson Kent p206-7, 228, Grove15 p70

(j) Italy: Giuseppe Bezzuoli Grove14 p586

(k) Mexico: Augustin Arrietra; Jose Manzo; Jose Velasco Grove21 p385

(l) Norway: Harold Sohlberg Grove22 p540

(m) Poland: Artur Grottger; Wojciech Kossak; Jan Matejko; Piotr Michalowski Grove14 p588, &18 p398.

14 p901; Pogany pp 6-7 [Check through Munkacsy

(n) Portugal: Domingos Antonio de Sequeira Grove14 p586

(o) Romania: Theodor Aman Grove14 p588

(p) Russia: Alexander Morozov; Grigory Myasoyedov; Vasily Perov; Ivan Shiskin; Vasily Surikov; VasnetsovTurnerRtoI p362, 50Rus pp 110, 158, Petrova pp 77, 90, 92-3, 97, Leek

(q) Sweden: Prince Eugen; [Edvard &] Richard Bergh; Karl Nordstrom Grove10 p648, Grove22 p540

(r) Spain: Eduardo Cano de la Pena Grove5 p621

(s) USA: William Bradford; Albert Bierstadt; Frederic Church; Frederic Remington; Thomas Whittredge Wilmerding pp 117-8, 123-7, 129, L&L

NATIONAL SOCIALIST PAINTING: (53)

Development: In 1882-3 the term degenerate art was popularised by Max Nordau in Entartung (Degeneration) in which he argued that mental illness was caused by the traumas of modernism & that it was necessary to identify leading degenerates as diseased, unmask imitators as social enemies & caution the public against their lies Budick FT 22/3/2014. Another concept that was current before & after the turn of the century was decadence. This was a crucial element in Nietzsche’s philosophy & it became the leitmotif in the ideological thinking of both right & left wing theorists See Decadence in Section 7.

After the Great War the idea of cultural decline was a popular one with German intellectuals & there was a revival in the stress on the essential German nature of the nation’s art. It was by no means confined to those who would become National Socialists. However, in 1926 Paul Schulze-Naumburg, a displaced architect who had previously specialised in designing country houses, attacked the Bauhaus & in 1926 in his influential Art & Race made a biting critique of the world of modern art, though curiously he was himself considered a modernist. He argued that all paintings were essentially self-portraits & revealed the nature of the artist & their racial background. Modern artworks were presented side by side with photos of those with genetic deformities & he concluded that the artists were themselves inferior: uncreative, half & quarter men, who disliked beauty. During the 19^th century the inferior part of the nation had multiplied & the cream of the population had been killed during the War. The nation was now biologically inferior & this was reflected in the distorted work of the Expressionists & their followers Dunlop pp 228-30.

[Another element in National-Socialist thought was the celebration of Blut und Boden which was to give rise to Nazi paintings of idealised peasant life.] In 1926 Emil Hogg condemned skyscrapers & asphalt & called for a return to green German soil. Moreover, in his book The New Aristocracy of Blood & Soil, 1930, Richard Darre, who was a friend of Schultze-Naumburg, extolled the peasant way of life as superior to the nomadic life of the big cities Dunlop p231.

Until the Nazis came to power it was not clear just how opposed to modern German painting & to the work of the Expressionists the regime would be. Emil Nolde, the celebrated Expressionist, had from the first supported the Nazis & had support within the party Dunlop p234, Grove23 p186. Goebbels himself saw the Expressionists as possible exemplars of German national painting Grove22 p710. However, when Speer hung some Nolde watercolours in Hitler’s newly redecorated offices, Goebbels was told that they must be removed immediately. The Fuhrer had spoken Dunlop pp 234–5 .

Alfred Rosenberg the leading Nazi ideologist of racism did not get the message & lost his battle with Goebbels to control culture. It was however Rosenberg who was responsible for establishing the Militant League for German Culture in 1927. Its original members came predominantly from the Wagner circle in Munich & it enlisted artists & intellectuals of all types, including Schultze-Naumburg Dunlop pp 231-4, Grove22 p710.

The Bauhaus was closed, there was a purge in universities & galleries but there was then something of a pause. However in 1936 a tougher line began to emerge. Artists like Dix & Schmidt-Rottluff were forbidden to exhibit, leading Expressionist were harassed, the modern wing of the National Gallery was closed, & the painter Adolf Ziegler was made head of Goebbels’ Chamber of Fine Arts. In 1937 a great exhibition of Degenerate Art, together with the associated show of Nazi art, was held Dunlop pp 253-5. In the Degenerate show there were 650 paintings by 112 artists, of which only a few were Jewish, although they included Chagall, Kandinsky, Klee, Dix, Ernst, Kirchner. Eventually 20,000-21,000 works were listed as degenerate. Many were sold but about 4000 were burned by the Berlin fire brigade MacGregor pp 445, 451.

Influences: These included German Renaissance & Romantic art, together with Adolf Wissel & Willy Jackel who painted in a eclectic manner in which the monumental heroic pose was reserved for the male Grove 22 p711.

Characteristics: [Much National Socialist painting is, as might be expected & was intended, propagandistic. This was most obviously the case for portraits of the Fuhrer who is portrayed as standing with a stern & resolute face Golomstock pp 195, 305, 311. Sometimes they verge on the ludicrous, as in Lanzinger’s depiction of Hitler in armour Golomstock pxxiv. Pictures of soldiers & Nazi troopers, even where they are not in action, have faces that are impassive, stony or determined Golomstock pp 206-7, 238. Military paintings are frequent but this not altogether remarkable as Germany was at war for part of the period. Another notable feature of Nazi painting are works that celebrate historic events in the history of the regime, or events themselves celebrating such events Golomstock pp 239, 242, 324, 326, 334. Curiously there was little or no Germanic & Nordic themes of a mythological type ABEW p332, Golomstock p330. This may have been because Goebbels saw Nazism as a movement of the young who would create new forms Dunlop p234

[It is exceptionally difficult to identify of the distinguishing characteristics of National Socialist painting. The problem is that so many of the works do not appear to be distinctive, & might have been painted by a non-Nazi artist.] For instance Ziegler’s female nudes of a common classical type ABEW p296, Golomstock p359, Dunlop p236. The landscapes that were produced also appear to have been of a traditional kind Grove22 p711. Many other National Socialist paintings, although they clearly depict German soldiers & Nazi supporters, would be thought unremarkable were it not for the cause for which they were fighting or in which they believed Golomstock pp 238-9, 248-9 , 338, 345, 349, 353, 349, 355, ABEW p297. {Indeed the most disturbing feature of National Socialist painting is the way in which a murderous regime has been civilised & elevated to the ordinary.}]

As was to be expected, there was nothing original about the style that was employed which was of a conventional naturalism type with here & there a little impressionistic input ABEW pp 294, 287 etc. In the few case where colour images are available it is generally warm with a preponderance of brown ABEW pp 294-7; Golomstock xx, xxiv, xxvii, xxx. Nazi paintings are certainly not Modernism but this is scarcely a ground for objection, although some commentators appear to condemn them because they are traditional (& also because they depicted archaic craft work to the neglect of modern industry, which is not true) Grove22 p711, Golomstock 263, 336, 356

They were comfort pictures to reassure (& perhaps titillate) the German people in peace & war Golomstock pp 141, 80, 239, 242-3, 319, 321, 346, ABEW pp294, 296. [This is hardly surprising: the Nazi regime was not in what was regarded as high art permit paintings that might worry those at home & potential supporters abroad.] Where they depict the response of ordinary Germans to what they were being told they indicate that Nazi propaganda was effective, which is a point of some political interest Golomstock pp 181, 241, 243, 319, 324, 326, 339, 345, 353. [Exactly how good or bad they are it is almost impossible to tell] since only one appears to be readily available to view.]

Painters: Dielmann; Franz Eichhorst; Elk Eber; Einbeck; Erler; Fritz/Friz Freitag; Gessner; Hagenstenberg; Paul Hermann; Sepp Hilz; Conrad Hommel; Otto Hoyer; Willy Jackel; Albert Janesch; Jorzig; Artur Kampf; Otto Kirchner; Richard Klein; Heinrich Knirr; Hubert Lanzinger; Jacob Mann; Oscar Martin-Amorbach; Erich Mercker; J. Nordmann; Paul Padua; Werner Peiner; Georg Poppe; Wilhelm Petersen; Adolf Reich; Ivo Salinger; Schiebe; H. Schmitt; Hans Schmitz-Wiedenbruck; Leopold Schmutzler; Raffael Schuster-Woldan; Georg Siebert; R. Sohn-Skuwa; Ferdinand Staeger; Taust; Karl Truppe; Will Tschech; Adolf Wisel; Josef Vietze; Adolf Ziegler; Hugo Zimmermann Grove12 p396, & 22 p711; Dunlop p243, AEBW p297, Golomstock [all the painters for whom there is an image].

THE NAZARENES ET AL: (22)

Term: From about 1817 the Brotherhood of St Luke (Lukasbruder) & their followers were described as The Nazarenes (Die Nazarener)TurnerRtoI p203. [The ET AL covers the few non-German painters who worked in a similar style to the German artists.]

Background:

(a) Cultural: Wilhelm Wackenroder’s Heartfelt Effusions of an Art-Loving Monk was published in 1797. This was a short passionate book on the lives of 15^th & 16^th century artists that was intended to show the spiritual nature of true art. In subsequent essays Wackenroder saw art as a form of religious worship, & nature as the language of god. Hence by recreating god’s wonders through art man was offering him appropriate praise. Leading artists were also seen as reflecting their cultures rather than as individual geniuses Vaughan1980 pp 163-4.

(b) Political: After the French invasion of in 1806, the patriotic mood encouraged interest in medieval Northern art which became a symbol for an age when Germany was vigorous & strong Vaughan1980 p166. Bavaria, hitherto reluctantly allied with Austria, made peace with France & received (1803) extensive territories. It then fought with France (1805) & received further lands (Treaty of Pressburg) [There is more to say].

Influences: The Nazarenes were fascinated by 15^th & early 16^th century Renaissance art (Massacio, Fra Angelico, Durer, Cranach, Holbein, Perugino & early Raphael)TurnerRtoI p203, Vaughan1980 p169, OxDicArt, L&L. However Overbeck was influenced by the monumental schemes of Michelangelo, Signorelli & Mantegna Vaughan1980 p178. The Nazarenes wanted to return to first principles &, like the Neoclassicists, to paint with a serious moral purpose, after a century devoted to what was regarded as frivolous & decorative art. From about 1820 the Nazarenes were also influenced by Goethe’s Faust, other new literary material & the Niebelungenlied & other rediscovered Northern myths L&L

Development: The Brotherhood of St Luke was formed in 1809 by students at the Vienna Academy, viz Overbeck, Pforr, Vogel, Wintergerst, Sutter & Hottinger. They were united in their opposition to the academic teaching of Fugger, although it was mindless routines rather than classicism to which they objected Novotny p112, Vaughan1980 p169.

In 1810 the members of this artistic fraternity mostly shifted to Rome where they initially lived in the monastery of St Isidoro. They were joined in Rome by Cornelius, Schadow, von Leonhardshoff & Veit. The Nazarenes wore wide trailing cloaks & had long hair. After Pforr’s death in 1812 their religiosity increased, as did their interest in heroic nationalism. There were several conversions to Catholicism. In 1816 Overbeck, Cornelius, Schadow & Veit began the Casa Bartholdy frescos in the Prussian consul’s lodgings TurnerRtoI pp203-5, L&L. The group learned the most exacting form of fresco from a plasterer who had worked for Mengs, ie without any subsequent seco modification Vaughan1980 p179.

In 1819 Cornelius moved to Munich, where he was employed by the future Ludwig I to paint murals in his new sculpture gallery. By then the Brotherhood, although joined by Ferdinand Olivier & Schnorr von Carolsfeld, had dissolved but a wider & looser Nazarene movement emerged. Between 1818 & 1828 an important commission was undertaken on a fresco cycle for the Roman aristocrat Carlo Massimo of scenes from Italian medieval & Renaissance poets. It involved Overbeck, Veit, Koch, Schnorr von Carolsfeld, who was a new arrival & briefly Cornelius TurnerRtoI pp 203-5, Vaughan1980 pp 180-1.

Veit & Koch were a discordant combination & the Nazarene grouping had lost coherence before the Massimo frescos were completed. In 1827 Schnorr went to Munich at Ludwig’s invitation & worked on a suite of rooms in the royal palace illustrating the Nibelungen Vaughan1980 pp 180-1. By 1840 many of the Nazarenes had received academic appointments in Germany & only Overbeck lived on in Rome Champa p17. His studio in Rome was a meeting place for artists from many countries OxDicArt

The Nazarene movement came to embrace some foreign artists belonging to Purismo in Italy or who, like Dyce, joined the Nazarene circle Norman1977. A fraternity of artists which pursued many of the aims of the Nazarenes was the Pre-Raphaelites their early religious paintings were remarkably similar to those of Dyce while Ford Madox Brown, who very close to the group, painted works modelled on those of Overbeck. The pre-Raphaelites like the Nazareenes thought that the era before Raphael held the key to a much needed revival of contemporary art & that since Raphael art had sincerity & truth, which was a key concept for both movements. This similarity is not disputed but it is said that the Pre-Raphaelites only paid lip-service to the art of the Primatives, although Holman Hunt reported how he was affected by the work of Overbreck Andrews1964 pp 78-81. [It is certainly true that the Pre-Raphaelites soon moved away from the Nazarenes & began painting modern life works but Rosetti, together with William Dyce, should be grouped with the Nazareenes.]

Oeuvre: To begin with Nazarene subject matter was almost exclusively religious but later it broadened into classical mythology, folk-tales, & contemporary literature TurnerRtoI pp 203, 205, L&L

Characteristics: Nazarene work was typically linear & two dimensional with an emphasis on local colour. There was an early stress on artistic simplicity & sincerity, although there was a tendency to overcrowd paintings. Cast shadows are absent from their work & it was from early on seen as having little contact with reality, being destitute of colour, light & shade, & as constituting a sacred & calm dream. The Nazarenes rejected all virtuosity & interest in the handling of paint. Later work had a more monumental & revivalist style, as exemplified by Schnorr’s Angelica, Medoro & Orlando for the Casa Massimo TurnerRtoI p203-5, Vaughan1979 pp 179, 183, & 1980 pp 169-70, 183, Champa p18, OxDicArt. The work of the Nazareenes has been described as insipid &, although sincere, their paintings have an ostentatious & derivative piety OxDicArt, Novotny p114

Reception: When the cartons for the Bartholdi frescos were exhibited at Frankfurt in 1817 they were hailed as having brought about the rebirth of German art Vaughan1980 p179.

Influence: This was far-reaching & enduring MET1981 p20 It embraced Ingres who was in Rome from 1806, Ford Madox Brown after he arrived in Rome in 1845, the Pre-Raphaelites, the architect Pugin, the decoration of the Houses of Parliament & painting well towards the end of the Victorian era TurnerRtoI p205. In France there was the renewal of sacred art in the school of Lyons & at Peladan’s Salons de la Rose + Croix & to Serusier & Denis. In Germany the Nazarenes influenced much of the official art of rhe 19^th century through to Beuron which was one of the last centres of religious artTurnerRtoI p205, MET1981 pp19-20. Its cloister was a significant revival of fresco Grove22 p329

Painters:

(a) Germany: Cornelius; Eberhard; Eggers; Hottinger; [Koch]; Leybold; Minardi; Ferdinand & Friedrich Olivier; Overbeck; Pforr; Platner; Ramboux; [Richter]; Ridolfo & Wilhelm Schadow; Schaller; Stutter; Szoldatits; Johannes & Philipp Veit; Vogel; von Carolsfeld; von Leonhardshoff; von Steinle; Wintergerst TurnerRtoI pp 203-5, Grove12 p392, Novotny p123, Norman1977

(b) Italy: Tomasso Minardi Andrews1964 pp 71-2

(b) Britain: William Dyce; Rosetti

NEOCLASSICISM (15)

Term: Neoclassicism was coined in the 1880s to denote the [supposed] last stage of the classical tradition following the Rococo TurnerRtoI p206. The term has also been used to cover the revival of classicism in the earlier part of the 20^th century. For this movement see Magic Realism in this Section.

Background/Influences: This was the Enlightenment & the Enlightenment concept of being in accord with Nature & thereby having a uniform & universal appeal, ie not being deformed, affected & merely fashionable Honour1968 pp 13, 105. Another factor was the moralising popular art in England, eg Hogarth’s prints & Richardson’s novels Rosenblum1967 p50;. The popularity of prints surged Honour1968 p88. Interest in & discussion of scientific topics in for instance the Birmingham Lunar Society led to a demand for scientific pictures, eg representations of plants, animals, eruptions, distant lands, & industrial scenes Honour1968 pp 94, 97.

One important feature of the Enlightenment was its optimism, though the elderly Voltaire was a notable exception NCMH7 pp 104-5. It was generally believed that what science had achieved in the sphere of the material world it could achieve in the realm of social & political relations. Nature was an orderly & harmonious cosmos. What would make men just, rational or happy were factual questions to which the answers could not be incompatible. This view was held by those who had faith in the natural sciences & also by the followers of Leibniz & his disciple Johann Wolf Berlin1956 pp 27-8. Enlightenment optimism reached it greatest intensity just before & after the outbreak of the French Revolution. A mood of pessimism set in after the Terror NCMH9 pp 92,100.

Neo-Classicism flourished at a time when Pompeii & Herculaneum were being systematically excavated, & the scholarly study of ancient Greek remains was accompanied by the publication of large-format illustrated books. Although these were of great use to sculptors & architects there was little on which painters were able to draw. As a result they turned for inspiration to Poussin & to ancient relief sculpture. However, they did so under the influence of Winkelman’s belief that ancient art was characterised by calm simplicity & noble grandeur Brigstocke p511.

Development/Landmarks/Phases: This was facilitated by the way in which Rome acted as a hub. There during the 1760s Gavin Hamilton painted & displayed vast, solemn & static paintings of Homeric subjects Honour1968 pp 30.-1. The status of the artist was enhanced due to Academies & a reduced dependence on wealthy patrons Honour1968 pp 88-9. Hogarth’s History Paintings with their unaccustomed realism & expressive directness paved the way for David’s figures in Andromeda Mourning Hector 1783. Vien’s Marchande d’ Amour echoed Hogarth’s Moses Before Hector’s Daughter Antal1962 p200

From about 1747 there was a reaction against Rococo painting in France Fried1980 p35. It had various manifestations: governmental, critical &, of course, in painting itself. In 1745 Tournhem became the Director of Public Works & his aim was the the resurrection of History Painting BrownM1938 pp 20-1. Angviller became the director of the Academy in 1774 & promoted paintings depicting civic virtue Honour1968 pp 4-5. In 1754 the art critic Saint Yenne called for historical paintings of virtuous, heroic & exemplary men, & Diderot attacked Boucher in his Salon de 1761 Honour1968 p44, Hyde p3.

The first landmark painting was The Father of the Family by Greuze, 1755, the most important painter of his generation. The picture was greeted with acclaim & the Abbe de La Porte drew attention to the striking totally absorbed way in which the family, with the exception of a young son, was attending to what the father was reading from the Bible Fried1980 pp 8-10. This work was proceeded & followed by works by Van Loo that depict rapt concentration. Meanwhile paintings by Boucher were being criticised because, among other reasons, most of the figures were not paying attention to what was supposed to be happening Fried1980 pp 17-27, 36–40.

It would be wrong to think that Greuze & others were the only artists who depicted serious paintings depicting absorption. Works of this type were being painted by Chardin. However, in his works extreme concentration appears to be an ordinary, everyday condition rather than a special effect which the artist has striven to accomplish through through the choice of a special dramatic & emotional subject, as in Greuze’ Filial Piety of 1763 Fried1980 pp 55, 61. A new emotional force, foreign to the Rococo era, was now at work in French painting, to which the critics of Greuze allude when they criticise his work as sentimental & merely having a literary appeal Fried1980 pp 10, 11, 55

Another milestone painting was Mengs’ Parnassus of 1761. In this work, which was almost certainly inspired by Winckelmann, Mengs eschewed colouristic effects & strove for noble simplicity, calm grandeur, & classical perfection. [It was however its motivation that was important] because the work itself was pretentious & insipid Honour1968 pp 31-2, Brigstocke p511. During the 1760s the movement away from the Rococo went further with the advent of stern, moralising & tragic Neoclassical paintings. To begin with these were in the form of the exemplum virtuious where exemplary behaviour & virtuous action were depicted & celebrated. These paintings drew on examples culled from the Bible, history & imagined incidents from daily life. During the late 1770s there was a change of key with heroic sacrifices that become more violent Rosenblum1967 pp 50-66. The 1780s witnessed a crop of Neoclassical masterpieces including David’s Oath of Horattii, Canova’s Clement XIV monument & Ledux’s architecture Honour1968 p32. During the late 18^th century middle class sitters, & then the upper classes, began to be painted less stylishly, more realistically, & no longer as aristocrats Honour1968 p89.

David’s Oath of the Horatti, 1784-5, was an exemplum virtutis in excelsis. Here the three Horatti bind themselves to fight three Curiatti brothers in order to settle a war & Alba. Noble & muscular masculinity is contrasted with the feminine tenderness of their sisters Honout1968 pp 34-5. Stage by stage David’s work reflected the radicalisation of French politics, in which he was to become intimately engaged, until it culminated in his greatest picture The Death of Marat,1793. He is pictured as a saint of the new religion of rationalism & his nudity recalls the the statues of classical & dying philosophers. Nevertheless the paining also illustrates another Neoclassic al development: the advent of current history painting, though this dates back to the Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West, 1770 Honour1968 pp 155-6, Roberts Chs 1 & 2, Antal1966 p10, Rosenblum1969 pp 81-2.

The period of the Directorate during the later 1790s deserves special mention because here the impact of political developments was crystal clear. Under the Directorate there were anti-Revolutionary paintings & lamentations for lives that had been lost Rosenblum1967 pp 89-90.

It has been argued that under the Empire Neoclassicism entered a period of deterioration & devaluation. It became a mere antique revival, or was increasingly drained of high-minded ideas & [transformed into little more than propaganda for Napoleon Honour1968 pp 14, 171. Nevertheless, painting during the Napoleonic era had positive features.] There was a return to images of patriotic sacrifice, though now with Roman Imperial pomp as in David’s Distribution of Eagles, 1810 Rosenblum1967 pp 94-5. Napoleon was celebrated for his virtue, heroism & clemency, witness Gros’ Napoleon in the Pesthouse,1804, & Napoleon at Eylau, & also Guerin’s Napoleon Pardoning the Rebels at Cairo, 1808. Rosenblum1967 pp 95-9. According to Novotny, who cites Napoleon at Eylau, the representation of war was now simplified into the cult of victory. This however ignores the way in which the entire foreground is covered with the dead & wounded. What this ignores is that the entire foreground is filled with the dead & dying Novotny pp 28-9, Boime p 38

At the Restoration there was a brief & feeble celebration of Bourbon virtue with Hersent’s Louis XVI Distributing Alms to the Poor During the Winter of 1788). However this was a swansong of the exemplum virtutis Rosenblum1967 pp 101-2. The pupils & followers of Gros -Charlet, Raffet, Delaroche, & Isabey- depicted Napoleonic events with nostalgic Romanticism in which monumentality was replaced by episodes of war & military life in which heroic figures rarely appear Novotny pp 30, 32. In the 1820s & 30s the Neo classicists, who were entrenched in the French Academy, fought a rear-guard action against the Romantic colourists & the Realists & the movement was transmuted into academic classicism. This retained its hold throughout the century by way of Ingres, Flandrin, Gleyre, Couture, Cabanel, Bouguereau & Puvis de Chavannes Norman1977 p158.

[The artistic territory occupied by the Neo classicists was perhaps too narrow & exacting for the movement to continue in a pure form. Heroic sacrifice & masculinity, as inspired by the ancient world & depicted in sombre colours, were unlikely to occupy artists for very long. Too much is being left out. Noble & resolute men may disregard their wives & children in David’s paintings but they seldom do so in the real world. Neoclassicism accorded women a role that was too restrictive & passive. Indeed, until a late stage, they were permitted to appear nude & have erotic appeal.] Gerard’s Cupid & Psyche with its nudity & erotic overtones did not appear until 1798 Honour1968 p171. [Above all, Neoclassicism did not have much to contribute to landscape painting.]

Features: The painters had a high minded contempt for Rococo subject matter & painterly & illusionistic techniques. Their work was severe & straightforward using linear & frontal style which was thought suitable for edifying themes. Their colouring was clear, but often sombre They searched for a truth that was below the surface & hence concentrated on form rather than texture & line rather than colour. Texture & colour seem to have been regarded as superficial &, because they were apprehended through the senses had a varying appeal Honour1968 pp 19,20, 113 . They were inspired by Greece & the Roman Republic, & not the Empire which was regarded as decadent Honour1968 p44. Extreme pathos a feature of early British Neo-Classical painting by Hamilton, West & Dance. Thousands of deathbeds surrounded by mourners were painted, together with pictures of virtuous widows Rosenblum1967 p28. Rosenblum1967 p 65. There was an evolution of in French Neo-Classicism towards naturalism. Vien & David tried to formulate a “realistic classicism” in which the discordant & harsh colours of his history paintings were not as generally supposed anti-realist but anti-Rococo Antall pp 200, 253

Painters: Dance; Greuze, Gross; Guerin; Gavin Hamilton; Mengs; Mortimer; Vien: West (early); Wright of Derby Rosenblum1967, Norman, L&L [This list needs to be revised)

NEOEXPRESSIONISM ET AL: (55)

Term: It is used to cover a movement that emerged internationally during the late 1970s & was characterised by intense subjective feelings, raw painting & figuration OxDicMod, Lucie-S2003. [However, it is used here in a wider sense & embraces earlier post-war painters whose work had similar features. Neo-expressionism should be regarded as commencing with Francis Bacon’s Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion, 1944.

Background: Although Hitler loathed German Expressionism, it was unpopular in Germany because of its apparent Germanic celebration of the instinctive & irrational, whereas abstract art was seen as democratic & International Hughes1991 pp 403-5. In 1970 there was an exhibition of Guston’s new figurative work at the Marlborough Gallery, New York OxDicMod. By the end of the 1970s American art was regarded as arid & hegemonic. Neo-expressionism flowered under various names, especially in Germany, Italy, & the USA; though Baselitz & Schonebeck had been Neo-Expressionist pioneers in Berlin since early the early 1960s OxDicMod, Hughes1991 pp 405-7

Sub-Groups: Neo-expressionism is a Movement which embraces a number of groupings. They comprise Figuration Libre, Heftige Malerei; Neue Wilden (New Savages); Transavantguardia; New Image Painting; School of London. Although Andrews & Freud belonged to the School they cannot be regarded as Neo-Expressionists because they are less concerned with personal expression than with the world of reality.

Characteristics: Neo-Expressionist paintings display intense feeling & the aggressive use of materials. Works are usually large & rapidly executed. They are figurative & violent with doom laden subjects, although sometimes these are almost obscured in a welter of activityOxDicMod. The pictures seem inspired by painters’ fascination with themselves, & not by the external world. “My paintings are about me”, declared Peter Bommels, a Neue Wilden from Cologne ArtDicW. Consequently the works can be self-indulgent & solipsistic.

Reception: Neo-expressionism was criticised for returning to discredited notions of personal expression & for incompetent work. However the movement was boosted by large exhibitions in early 1980s (A New spirit in Painting at the RA 1981; Zeitgeist at the Martin Gropius Bau, Berlin, 1982; &, above all, documenta 7, 1982, which was curated by Rudi Fuchs, who was a former supporter of Conceptual Art OxDicMod

Patronage: Charles Saatchi OxDicMod

Painters (leading): Cecily Brown?; Auerbach; Bacon; Baselitz; Clemente; Chia; Cucchi; Fetting; Greenfield; Howson; Kiefer; Kitaj; Kossof; Kuitca; Lupertz; Middendorf; Paladino; Penck; Salome; Salle; Neil Jenny; Saville; Dumas; Susan Rothenberg; Schnabel; Zimmer; Joe Zucker (Immendorff & Kiefer might be included, but they were less concerned with personal expression) OxDicMod, 1001, ArtDicW, Hughes1991 p407

NEO-ROMANTICISM: (54)

Term/Concept: The label is often confined to British painting OxDicTerms, Shearer-W1996, Brigstocke . This is a mistake as the term also covers earlier artists who worked in France OxDicMod. The term first came into common use as a description of British art following an article by Raymond Mortimer in the New Statesman, March 1942. He thought that Neo-Romanticism appealed to mystics & pantheists who felt a fraternity, even a unity, with all living things TurnerEtoPM pp 264-5, Yorke . However the Movement had already been identified much earlier in France where it was called Neo-Humanism Grove30 p389. Neo-Romanticism was a response to the threat of invasion & aerial bombardment, together with post-War austerity TurnerEtoPM p264. It lasted until the early 1950s, when many artists migrated to southern Europe, & pop culture & Abstract Expressionism drowned it out TurnerEtoPM p264. Moreover Sutherland Piper & other Neo-Romantics became preoccupied with design work or turned away from landscape OxDicMod

Background: There was an upsurge in English rural subject painting during the war era of 1792-1818 Barrell pp 20-21. During the second World War there was a growing emphasis on mutual support & social solidarity. It was reflected in Henry Moore’s shelter drawings of 1942 & the Beveridge Report Mellor pp 22-3.

Inspirations: There was a Neo-Romantic tendency in French painting & design during the inter-war period. The artists involved were Christian Berard, Leonid & Eugene Berman, & Peter Techelitchev who during 1938 had a major show in LondonTurnerEtoPM p265, Mellor p11. They painted dramatic scenes featuring drooping & mournful figures OxDicArt. These painters from France had an important influence on the British Neo-Romantics (Minton & Ayrton) Yorke pp 170, 173. Other influences on the British movement included the Modernism of Picasso & Masson, together with the Arthurian legend, Wordsworth, Blake & Palmer TurnerEtoPM pp 264-5. A negative influence was the dislike by John Piper & others of the international abstract art of Nicholson & Hepworth L&L.

Development: Neo-Romanticism began as a reaction during the mid-1930s against the over-celebration of French painting & the denigration of British Romantic painting. It was expressed in an extreme form by Roger Fry in crowded lectures at the Queen’s Hall by Roger Fry [which would have been heard by many artists] & was published in 1934 in Reflections on British Painting Spalding1999 p243. There was also a reaction against the Modern Movement & abstraction which were felt to be out of touch with the realities of British life, the slump & the growing international menace of Fascism. In 1935 John Piper contributed to the exhibition Against War & Fascism held by the Artists International Association Spalding 2009 p91, See Artist’s International Association in Section 8. From the mid-1930s there was a growth in publications relating to the countryside & to British Romantic painters. In 1936 The Shell–sponsored County Guide to Dorset on which Paul Nash worked was published; & John Piper, who had recently become the art editor of Axis wrote an article with Geoffrey Grigson condemning Abstraction & Surrealism; praising Constable, Blake & Turner; & calling for humanised art Spalding1986 p127. From the the mid-1930s John Piper moved from Abstraction to collages that were now made on the spot & then to topographical drawings L&L, Spalding 2009 pp 92. In 1941 he began [his great series of] paintings of English country houses & in the following year his influential book British Romantic Artists was published Spalding2009 p193, OxDicMod

Characteristics: Works were linear, lyrical & poetic TurnerEtoPM pp 264-5. In Britain there was a desire to create a timeless & mysterious space (Sutherland, Minton), to show nature as having supernatural fertility (Minton, Craxton), & to paint the Welsh landscape (Sutherland, Ayrton) Spalding1986 pp 130-1. Indeed Neo-Romantic painters seem to have been particularly attached to certain places that can be been seen as their genius loci, such as Renishaw & its environment in the case of John Piper Spalding2009 pp 206, 213-4. Paintings were often sad if only because of their subject matter: country houses owned by a threatened aristocracy & which were starting to be demolshed, blitzed buildings, & a rural way of life that was vanishing. Sadness & melancholy are made evident by drooping figures (Berman), by overcast skies & sinister colouring (Piper), by disturbing backdrops (Berard), & by the use of arid landscape to symbolise Hell (Tchelichew). There is a fundamental ambiguity about many works because the objects which are depicted have a dual aspect. They are merging or confusable with human beings (Tchelitchew), or the ambiguity is even more radical because rocks, landscapes & buildings appear to be alive & experiencing the troubled emotions that only living creatures are able to feel (Piper, Sutherland) Spalding2009 pp 180-1, Pl 17-27, 31-6, Berthoud p110, See Brigstocke. Piper was aware of the way in which his paintings should be viewed & refered to Seaton Delaval, which he painted in 1941, as being “somehow alive” Spalding2009 p195.

[The emotional nature of British Neo-Romantic is partly explained by the dramatic time of war in which they were painted] & in particular by the blitz scenes which the artists experienced Spalding2009 pp 180-1. [This was intensified because they were not permitted the emotional release of painting body parts & carnage]. Moreover the war period must itself have been a time of generally heightened emotion certainly for the artists under discussion Berthoud pp 95, 102-3, 105-7, 116-7, 126. [For the Neo-Romantics in France heightened emotionalism would have been a natural response to the Russian Revolution from which they had fled.]

Backers: Colin Anderson, Kenneth Clark, Geoffrey Grigson, John Lehmann, Wyndham Lewis, Herbert Read, Peter Watson; The Arts Council & British Council TurnerEtoPM p265

Repute: Neo-Romanticis was first discredited by the cool sneers of Lawrence Alloway & Pop Art other Pop Art critics as early as 1954 & drowned out by Abstract Expressionism. However, during the late 1980s a [slow] re-evaluation began Mellor p9.

Painters:
(a) France: Christian Berard; Eugen & Leonid Berman; Pavel Tchelitchew
(b) UK: Ayrton; [Cecil Collins]; Colquhon; Craxton; MacBryde; Minton; Moore; Paul Nash; Piper; Sutherland; VaughanTurnerEtoPM p265; L&L

NORTHERN REALISM: (7)

Term; [It is my own. That much Dutch & Flemish painting in the 17^th century can be termed realist will scarcely cause surprise but there appears to have been a curious reluctance by art historians to recognise that there was a northern realist movement that dates well back into the previous century & which embraces the painting of such a well known artist as Pieter Brugel the Elder. Nevertheless there has been authoritative recognition] (a) that realism & genre date back to about 1500 in this region Haak pp 17-21; & (b) that realism & naturalism were to be found in France during the 17^th century. As long ago as 1934 the curator Charles Sterling named an exhibition at the Orangerie Painters of Reality in France during the 17^th century. Moreover Anthony Blunt & others regarded the Le Nains as naturalistic artists Bayer p vii, Blunt1954 pp 179-81, Allen p36. [The Northern Realist Movement has been regarded as beginning in 1515, when] Van Leyden painted his first in his series of genre paintings, [& as tailing off around1700].

Background: Political:

(a) The Low Countries: Until about1555, when Philip II succeeded Charles V, Antwerp at least had exceptional political, religious & fiscal autonomy because it provided Charles with the necessary finance to pursue his political aims. However Ghent, which had resisted heavy taxation, lost its liberties in 1540 NCMH2 pp 57-8, EBrit16 p250. Under the regency of Margaret of Parma 1559-67 discontent mounted against a scheme for ecclesiastical reform. There was a petition to Philip II by William the Silent, Egmont & Horn, but it was rejected. In 1566 there was a meeting of confederated nobles & religious toleration was demanded. This was followed by rioting & the desecration of religious works. The confederates helped to restore order, but Philip instituted repression under the Duke of Alva during 1567-73. Egmont & Horn escaped but William was executed. There was general rebellion & repression which culminated in the sack of Antwerp in 1576 DaviesN pp 536, 538. In 1585 Alexander Farnese captured Antwerp & the whole of the southern Netherlands, now the Spainish Netherlands, recognised Philip II but it retained its autonomy. Protestants had to convert or emigrate EBrit.

(b) South West Germany: There was anarchy in Swabia notably in the cities of Ulm, Augsburg. This led the Emperor Frederick III to propose a scheme of pacification & reform which resulted in the formation of the Great Swabian League with a federal council, court & army. Order was now restored but the League dissolved in 1543 due to the Reformation EBrit 21 pp 628-9. Nuremberg & Strasbourg were independent because they were Imperial Free cities Wikip

Background: Religious:
In 1517 Luther nailed up his theses, Protestantism spread in the Low Countries & Charles V issued a series of edicts against heretical acts. The high point came in 1550 with the so called edict of blood when all loopholes were closed. Heretical offences became punishable by death & judges were expressly forbidden to mitigate punishments. The first burnings were Antwerp in 1523 & the number of martyrs steadily increeased DaviesET pp 153, 506, Geyl pp 55-6.

However, persecution became increasingly unpopular. In the Low Countries Catholicism was of a humanist & reformist type & the best known heretics were the Anababtists, who had become quietist DaviesET p154. In 1566 the nobles demanded that the Inquisition be abolished & that the States-General be consulted on the religious question. The Regent, Margaret of Parma, made a temporary grant of religious toleration; Calvinists swarmed into the Low Countries & strove to destroy Catholicism. In 1566 over 400 churches & monasteries were looted or destroyed in four days in Augsberg. Monks & nuns were maltreated or killed & except in Bruges art treasures destroyed. The Catholics now rose in defence & order was restored; but Philip decided to disempower the nobility & establish absolutism. In 1567 the Duke of Alva arrived with a Spanish army. Thousands were executed but there was little popular discontent until 1572 when heavy taxation was imposed & the revolt in the Netherlands began in earnest DaviesET pp 153-64.

[Insert background material on the Spanish Netherlands & Dutch republic covering the 17^th century. A section on the development of Northern genre is also needed]

Links:
The Low Counties were regarded as an entity in 17^th century art-historiography & it is unlikely that 17^th century Flemish artists felt culturally distinct from those who were Dutch. They were both rooted in a common mainly Antwerpian tradition Vlieghe p1. Artists in the north as well as the south were influenced by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, including Brouwer & Savery GibsonWS p201. Important artists -Brouwer, De Heem, Quellinus- worked in both countries & together in Rome where they belonged to the Bentvueghels association Vlieghe p1. [Brouwer was especially important because] he popularised low-life genre in both countries OxDicArt

Characteristics:

(a) Genre: [The primary feature was the painting of everyday life & events of numerous types in which figures may be bourgeois but are not aristocratic. Those in the lower classes are often shown in a humerous or mildly derogatory manner. Hence the emotional temperature tends to be low & viewers are not invited to become too involved in what is happening. Often faces & situations depict figures that are irredeemably lumpen. This means that paintings have, as Social Historians have pointed out, a conservative message Solkin2008 pp 69-70. [On the other hand, what it was acceptable to paint was now greatly enhanced.]
(b) Domestic Interiors with One or Two Figures: [Although these are a sub-set of genre, they are so important & distinctive that they deserve special mention.]
(c) The ‘Scapes’: Only slightly less striking was another feature of Northern Realism: a new preoccupation with landscape & seascape as a distinct subject], & this despite the fact that paintings without figures were rare Stechow p7. [The countryside was in general ordinary & non-threatening, It was not of the Ideal or Arcadian type of Poussin & Claude, nor was it romantically wild or lonely. Skies are usually cloudy but not overcast & storms are most infrequent. Sometimes they may be coming but what is depicted the preceeding calm. Seascapes are calm or non-threateningly rough, & paintings of still-life incorporate ordinary food, cutlery etc on tables which seem casually arranged &/or somewhat disarrayed Fuchs pp 111, 113, 117-8.

Features:
(a) None of the top rank Dutch artists felt it necessary to visit Italy, witness Esias van De Velde, Jacob van Ruisdael, Hals, Vermeer, Steen, & also Rembrandt, although Terborch the Younger did Fuchs p43, OxCompArt.
(b) Northern Realism was the first comprehensive visual record of a society’s way of life, though it has been [questionably] argued that there was selectivity with men being rarely shown working apart from the occasional tailor, baker, weaver or blacksmith Kitson1966 p103, H&P p224.
(c) All types of realtionship between the sexes were depicted ranging from loving & contented older couples to brothal scenes eg Fuchs pp 52-3, 90,
(d) [Women occupy a much expanded role.] They are shown as guardians of charities, as in Hals, Backer, Verspronck & de Bray, they refusie amorous advances (Leyster), they smoke (Duck), drink (Steen), engage in child minding & breast feeding (Dou, Metsu), play instruments & make music (Molenaer, Palamedesz), & work at cloth & lace making (Van Swanenburgh, Netscher) Wilenski Pls 44, 48, 89, Haak Pls 41, 196, 468, 488, 491, 492, 573, 697, 1005
(e) In some interior scenes there is a conta jour element because there is a corridor leading out to entrance which is brightly lit SuttonP Pl 99, 105, 110,
(f) In landscape painting man is not lost in & overwhelmed by nature. Paintings without figures are rare & people often have an important role being engaged in everyday activities. Because of this, & the frequent evidence of agriculture, animals, buildings & constructions, landscapes are seldom empty or lonely. Nature & man are separate but balanced & in harmony Stechow pp 7-8 .
(g) In the depictions of ecclesiastical & secular public buildings there is no distance between those in power & those who are governed. This is a unique feature in 17^th century art Schama p386.
(h) Pictures are relatively small in order to fit into modest middle class dwellings H&P p224.
(i) A distinguishing characteristic of the work of the Le Nain brothers is the portrayal of peasant meals where the figures are grouped in an interior around a white tablecloth L&L

A Caveat: [Although a large part of northern painting during the 17^th century can legimimately be termed Realism, this does not necessarily mean that a work lacks a symbolic content, conveys no message & makes no comment.] This is shown by Dow’s Quack, Steen’s Life of Man, Metsu’s Sleeping Sportsman, & Van Mieris the Elder’s Brothel Scene. However, emblematic signs often have to be known beforehand in order to appreciate the painting’s full meaning, or this only becomes clear through careful reading or because a word in the title has a double meaning Kitson1966 p104; Fuchs pp 36, 39-50?. The genre paintings of the Le Nain brothers do not have an overt moralizing intent. Nor are they satirical or comical L&L

Painters:

(a) Belgium/Flanders: Brouwer; Cossiers; de Costa; de Venne; de Vos; Miel; David Rijckaert III; Silbrechts; David Teniers II; Van Craesbeck; Van Herp; Seghers; Van Thulden; Van Tilborch Vlieghe Ch8;
(b) France: The Le Nain brothers
(c) Netherlands: Netcher; Van der Helst; Terborch Fuchs pp 91-2 [The list needs to be greatly extended]

THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE: (1)

Concept: The term Renaissance is sometimes restricted to the deliberate imitation of Classical patterns & a conscious return to Classical values in Italy. Renaissance ideals are regarded having had little impact North of Alpes before Durer & his prints which then influenced Van Leyden & Massys. The Netherlands were regarded as being dominted by a strong Gothic tradition OxCompArt pp 965, 970. [However such a defintion of the Renaissance is too narrow & suggests that painting north of the Alpes lagged behind Italy. In important fields such as oil painting & portraiture the North led the way.] The term Northern Renaissace is now a widely accepted concept as indicated by the title of a volume in the Oxford History of Art Nash. Painting during the Northern Renaissance not only took place when Italian Renaissance art was in progress but also when esatalogical scenes & fantasy landscape were being painted by Bosch & others in both & south. Such work has been treated as a separate Movement See Escatalogical Painting & Fantacsy Landscape.

Background: Political:

(a) France: Prior to about 1420 Paris was by far the largest European city with 200,000 inhabitants & the most important centre for the production of beautiful hand-crafted products, including paintings. It was the residence not only of the French monarchy but also of Philip the Bold of Burgundy. However, the combination of a mad French king (Charles VI) famine, plague & English occupation (1422-36) ruined most of the luxury industries of Paris, whose population plummeted Nash pp 72, 74, EBrit17 p296 .

(b) The Low Countries, etc: These were mainly ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, namely Philip the Bold (reigned 1363-1404), Charles the Good (1419-67), & Charles the Bold (1467-77). Through marriage they acquired Flanders (1384) & then Holland & Brabant including Antwerp (1433), & by purchase Alsace (1469). As a result, Chares the Bold controlled most of the present day Low Countries as well as northern France & the isolated Duchy of Burgundy. Only briefly in 1475 was Lorraine conquered & geographical unity achieved EBrit4 pp 406-7, Nash p71, P-O2 p104. Philip, who was the richest ruler in Europe, promoted commerce & industries in Flanders & fostered learning & the arts Nash p71, Ebrit4 p407. However, due to a female heir, Mary, who married Maximillian of Austria (1477), the Duchy (less Burgundy itself which France had captured) fell to the Hapsburgs, Maximillian becoming regent on Mary’s death (1482) & taming the turbulent Flemish cities (1485) EBrit4 p207, 16 p250, Pirenne1936 p598. The longer-term consequences of Hapsburg rule were to be disasterous not only for the territories themselves but also because it led to a conflict between France & the Hapsburgs which only ended in the 19^th century Pirenne1936 pp 598-9.

Background: Economic:

Capitalism developed during the 12th & 13^th centuries but was checked by the Italian monopolisation of traffic in money, & by restrictive trade corporations which favoured the petite bourgeoiose. There were also laws restricting the charging of interest. Merchants became patrician rentiers & during the 14^th century there was no great commercial house & bank north of Alps. However from around 1400 a new capitalist class emerged in Flanders, France, south Germany & England. It desiring freedom from municipal regulations. A new textile industry was established in the Flemish countryside & urban industry declined after the mid-14^th century. From the mid-15^th century Bruges, where outsiders had to employ brokers who were burgesses, lost out to unrestrictive Antwerp. Italians were replaced by native parvenu financiers including the Fuggers in Austria & Germany, & Jacque Coeur in France. They were favoured by princes as a more convenient source of cash than the States-General. The great wars in early 16^th century were largely financed by the prosperity of the Low Countries. However Philip II’s bankruptcies (1575, 1596) ended the monarcho-capitalist alliance. It was the great era of discovery & expansion. In1419 the Madeira Isles & in 1497 ships penetrated beyond the Cape into the Indian Ocean; America was discovered in 1492. From the early 16^th century Antwerp became ther international emporium for the spices that were impoted via Cadiz in shipping from which foreigners were excluded Pirenne1936 pp 515-25.

Background: Religious:

In 1517 Luther nailed up his theses DaviesN p485. This led to the Wars of the Schmalkaldic League in Germany which ended with the Peace of Augusburg DaviesN p506. Protestantism spread in the Low Countries & Charles V issued a series of edicts against heretical acts. The high point came in 1550 with the edict of blood when all loopholes were closed. Heretical offences became punishable by death & judges were expressly forbidden to mitigate punishments. The first burnings took place in 1523 & the number of martyrs steadily increased DaviesET p153, Geyl pp 55-6

However, persecution became increasingly unpopular. In the Low Countries Catholicism was of humanist & reformist type & the best known heretics were the Anababtists, who had become quietist DaviesET p154. In 1566 the nobles demand that the Inquisition be abolished & that the States-General be consulted on the religious question. The Regent, Margaret of Parma, made a temporary grant of religious toleration; Calvinists swarmed into the Low Countries & strove to destroy Catholicism. Over 400 Church & monasteries were looted or destroyed in four days in Augsberg 1566. Monks & nuns were maltreated or killed & art treasures destroyed, except in Bruges. The Catholic now rose in defence & order was restored; but Philip decided to disempower the nobility & establish absolutism. In 1567 the Duke Alva arrived with a Spanish army. Thousands were executed but there was little popular discontent until 1572 when heavy taxation was imposed & the revolt in Netherlands began in earnest DaviesET pp 153-64.

Links: Michael Pacher, active 1462-98, was influenced by Italian Renaissancem paintinmg especially Mantegna, & had wide influence OxDicArt. Durer was profondly influenced by Italian painting.]

Northern & Southern Painting Compared:

[Some features were shared by both north & south. These included a passion for depicting the body & representing space, & also the modern portrait in which the person depicted has a unique individual appearance.] However the following characteristics are distinctive:

(i) Until about1475 there was little or no oil painting in Italy whereas in the North it was the rule. Here egg tempera was used either as an underlayer, but occasionally as the primarily binding medium during a brief fashion for experimentation with the Italian technique Nash pp 30-31, etc.

(ii) [The predominance of oil painting had important concequences. It helps explain] the painterly treatment of surface & texture in the North as against Italian linearity prior to the High Renaissance TurnerRtoI p281. An associated factor was the rarity of fresco in the North & its widespread use in Italy. Another consequence was the glowing & jewel-like colouring of Northern painting, together with greater tonal contrasts, as against the bright, light & less dramatic Italian art. The exception here was Flemish glue-size painting on linen which produces a matt effect JonesS pp 9-11.

(iii) Though genre elements appear in Italian paintings from an early date as in Lorenzetti, genre was more important in North. Whole works were devoted to genre subjects by van Eyck, Metsys, van Reymerswae etc Grove12 p289. [Moreover surviving paintings probably make genre appear less important than it was] because apparently glue-size pictures covered a wider subject matter than panel pictures & included erotica, genre & landscape JonesS p28. [A humerous & satirical element also appears to have been more frequent in Northern art] Grove12 p287

(iv) In Italian painting forms possessing clarity, completeness & decisive existence whereas Northern art is about interdependence & movement. Here the individual elements are but parts of a greater whole. Italian painting is preoccupied with the human figure, with the body itself. Its balanced attitude & the organisation of limbs are the artistic motif with displays of unmotivated movement. This contrasts with Germany treatment. In Italy art we are always aware of the solid body under clothing whereas in early Northern art bodily structure is indeterminate &, though it later became clearer, garments remained crucial. Italian artists were preoccupied with bodily measurements & proportions but German artists were not until Durer was stimulated by the Italian concern. In Germany free-standing figures are rare, whereas in Italy forms are kept separate from the landscape background & architectural space, or rather this is the case once plastic sensibility was established & serried rows of figures were no longer being painted). The Italian niche contrasts with the Northern canopy with its dependent figures. The North’s primary concern was not the figure as such but the figure complex, the interconnection of forms the their surroundings. During the 16^th century Northern figures become more & more plastic & distinct but even Durer’s 1514 single figure drawing of his Mother differs from Italian art because of interweaving & the snake-like winding of the lines Wolfflin 1931 pp 21-4, 36, 38-48. Wolfflin says that his remarks mainly relate to the period 1490-1530 & to south Germany art but the use of van Eyck to bolster his thesis [indicates that his generalisations may to some extent apply also to painting in the Low Countries.] Wolfflin1931 pp 19, 40-1.

(v) Northern paintings frequently display an awareness of the viewer’s act of looking. Figures sometimes stare out at the spectator or objects appear to protrude into our space JonesS pp 14-64. The difference between North & South is particularly evident in portraits. Northern artists developed the three quarter view, with the sitter looking out, whereas in Italy, until 1450-75, a severe profile was preferred with the sitter making no contact with the viewer TurnerRtoI pp 280-1

(vi) To begin with both northern & Italian artists made progress with perspective by trial & error. However, in the north artistic perception remained intuitive whereas in Italy much greater attention was paid to discovering the rules that governing this & other matters TurnerRtoI p280

It is sometimes wrongly supposed that in the north painters tended to be more concerned w1ith the accurate rendering of detail than with the overall composition, & that northen artists were merely concerned with reproducing reality. Michelangelo is reported to have said that Flemish artists painted external appearances without reason, art, symmetary, proportion, boldness or vigour. This would please devout persons & women, making them cry whereas Italian art would never provoke tears Nash pp 33-5.

Characteristics:

Northern Renaissance painting has been seen as “a world of tranquil dreams, [&] melodius quietude” L&D p11. [This summary verdict needs to be qualified but not rejected.] Much of the art consisted of small paintings that were intended for private devotion which was a feature of the 14^th & 15^th centuries. Here the worshiper would seek to particpate in the events of Christ’s life & death. Many of these events were of a distressing & depressing nature & these were not avoided in devotional & other paintings. These dealt with a range of customary subjects extending from Christ’s humiliation & suffering prior to the crucifixion through to the descent from the cross & the pieta. Christ Nailed to the Cross by Gerard David, 1481, will serve as an example because here by gazing directly out he seems to call on the viewer to repond JonesS pp 14-16, 76-7. However, what is remarkable is the small number of paintings of this type. Out of some 300 paintings from the north & west of the Alps there appear to be only about 40 that can be classified as disturbing either because of their graphic details of suffering by Christ & Christian martyrs or because they depict the grief of his disciples or the Virgin at for instance the Cruixifiction or dormition Cuttler Figs 68, 80, 84, 86, 96, 103, 128-30, 136-7, 143, 154, 176-7, 179, 181, 183, 204, 208-9, 221-2, 234, 238, 262, 273, 319, 321, 323-4, 328, 324, 343-4, 346, 348, 357, 369, Pl 20. [What are far more numerous are paintings which depict the triumphant resurrection, miracles or scenes in which the Virgin is portrayed as a loving mother.] Such humanisation is particularly striking in paintings where she & others are shown in contemporary domestic suroundings. The Virgin & Child in an Interior from the workshop of Robert Campin, before 1432, & The Magdalen Reading, before 1438, are examples JonesS pp 51, 52, 55, 65, 104. It should however be noted that this analysis of Northern Renaissance Painting does not cover the work of Bosch & other artists who painted work of a very different type for which See Escatological Painting & Fantasy Landscape in this Section,.

Development:

Campin-Flemalle & Van Eyck initialted Northern Renaissance pinting & broke with the International Gothic style. Campin-Flemalle rejected its elegance as an end in itself & instituted a new realism, albeit one in which the viewer is presented with a seemingly natural scene in which events & objects need to be carefully scanned in order to discover their full significance. In the central Annunciation panel of the Merode Altarpiece the Virgin’s purity is indicated by the symbolic lily on the table & by the pot & towel in & adjacent to the niche OxDicArt, L&L p121, Cuttler pp 69-70, 76, Pl 7. Campin-Flemalle & van Eyck were among the first to use transparent oil-glazes over lighter opaque underpainting so obtaining rich saturated colours & greater tonal variation in the modelling of forms Grove12 p803. The particular contribution of Van Eyck was his subtle & no longer styalised realism which he employed to paint both nature & portraits. This is evident from the wings of the Ghent Altar, 1432, & The Betrothal of Arnolfini, 1434, which is significantly signed “Jan van Eyck was present”. Because of his ability to observe Van Eyck, unlike Campin-Flemalle, mastered perspective Gomb1972 pp 176-81, Cuttler p76, Pl 7. Thereafter the advances made by Campin-Femalle & van Eyck were followed up by great but less original painters such as van der Weyden Cuttler p108 .

[The paintings of the German artists Albrecht Durer, Hans Holbein the Elder, & Hans Baldung Grien form a splendid coda to the Northern Renaissance. However it should be noted that some of Grien’s work does not fit & must be regarded as escatological.]

Painters: Alexander Bening (Master of Mary of Burgundy); [Lucas Cranach the Elder]; Dirk Bouts; Campin-Flemalle; [Durer]; Fouquet; [Grien]; Le Tavernier; Memling; Pol, Jean & Herman de Limbourg; Pacher; Rode; Van der Weyden; Van Eyck; Van Meckenem; Schongauer; Sittow Nash [This list needs to be revised]

POLITICAL ART/TENDENZKUNST: (51)

Term: It is my own. It has, of course, been recognised that some paintings are openly political but the term has not hitherto been employed to describe a separate movement] Barter p147. Political Painting comprises work which were in Germany described as Tendenzkunst, i.e., committed art that expresses political opinions & was often intended to be a propaganda tool in class warfare. In 1921 the revolutionary & Marxist members of the November Group urged it to promote work of this type. The open letter was signed inter alia by Grosz, Dix, Hausmann, Hoch, Schlichter & Scholz LewisB p92. These other Communist, fellow travelling artists & merely left-wing artists produced Tendenzkunst up to the Nazi takeover; & there was more work of this type in Mexico from the early 1920s, & in the United States & Britain during the 1930s. Paintings with a radical political message did not suddenly originate around 1920 but previous works of this type fit better elsewhere. Here we shall be concerned with work that had the primary purpose of promoting Socialism or at least forging an alliance in opposition to its enemies, especially Fascism.

Worthless Art: In 1920 Grosz launched a savage attack on Oskar Kokoschka who had protested that works of art were at risk in Dresden where there had been a deadly battle between military forces & demonstrating workers. He & John Heartfield in The Artist as Scab attacked Kokoschka for describing art works as holy heirlooms because most art was produced by minions of the bourgeoisie as a weapon against the proletariat. If art & culture were more valuable than people, the bourgeoisie was free to destroy its enemy LewisB pp 93-5. Extreme hostility to museums & their contents was not uncommon at about this time. Marinetti, the founder of Futurism, said he wanted to flood the museums & Mayakovsky in Russia declared that it was time for bullets to spatter museum walls LewisB p95

Characteristics/Development: In Political Art the figures are often satirised in an extreme manner. As might be expected, this was especially true for capitalists, landlords, generals & bishops: indeed for all those who could be regarded as bourgeois. However, in Germany at least the satire also extended to crippled war veterans, prostitutes, peasants, old people & beggars as in the work of Grosz, Dix & Scholz. The treatment of women with their over-large, pendulous or withered breasts was particularly notable. There was here a strong element of misogyny. Even members of the working class were shown in an extremely unflattering manner. This was true in particular where sexual relationships were depicted, & the same held good for the other groups that were lampooned. There was a remarkable preoccupation with eroticism which was equated with lust. There are almost never any signs of mutual affection. The way in which the working class were caricatured did not go unnoticed & members of the Bavarian Soviet made complaint LewisB p92. In Mexico Diego da Rivera painted murals from the 1920s which displayed hatred for rich capitalists & encouraged the downtroden OxDicMod, Wikip, See also Mexican Muralism in Section 8. Anti-Fascist prints & drawings began to appear in the United States from 1933 when Hitler took power & these were soon followed by paintings Whiting pp 3, 8. With the advent of the Popular Front in 1935 the American Artists’ Congress was formed & many, perhaps the majority of painters embraced Social Realism See American Social Realism in Section 8. Peter Blume’s Eternal City,1937, is an anti-fascist work of this type Whiting p36. In Britain the Artists International Association, which became a Popular Front organisation dated back to 1933 M&R p8. Although all of the art under discussion can be described as politically committed it would be quite wrong to assume that if was mere propaganda & dismiss it as such. The works often display great élan & some were great works of art.

Painters:

(a) Germany: Grosz, Dix, Hausmann, Hoch, Schlichter & Scholz LewisB p92

(b) UK: Clive Branson, Percy Horton, Cliff Rowe M&R pp 6. 17-9

(c) USA: William Gropper, Joe Jones, Jacob Lawrence, Jack Levine, Ben Shahn ShapiroD, Barter

(d) Mexico: Jose Orozco, Diego Rivers, David Siqueiros Helm

POST-CUBISM: (47)

Term: This covers painting subsequent to & influenced by Cubism & other contemporary artistic devlopments. Although the term does not appear to be in general use, the existence of Post-Cubism has of course been recognised. Robert Rosenblumn has described the impact of Cubism on subsequent painting in Part 3 of his book Cubism and Tewntieth-Century Art. According to Rosenblum, almost every major artist whose style matured after 1912 was, with the possible exception of de Chirico, profoundly affected by the Cubist Revolution. Moreover he argues that Cubism had a major effect not only on the Italian Futurists but also on the German Expresionists, on Abstraction & other artistic developments Rosenblum pp 9, 204-21, etc. However, the latter do not belong to the Post-Cubist Movement as strictly defined & in Expressionism & other Movements.

Characteristics: Both animate & inaminate objects are highly stylised & simplified. They have been transformed into linear shapes of an angular or rounded type. Lines & shapes often appear to be in coflict & intersect at acute angles. When this occurs the pictures have a feeling of energy & activity. The paintings have considerable & often large areas of undifferentiated paintwork in a uniform colour. Although there is sometimes shading & modulation it is reduced to the minimum. The lighting is surprisingly uniform which means that shadows are supressed. Hence these paintings are often unpainterly. The only exception is Paul Nash who only just fits into the group]. With the exception of some paintings during the Great War these Post-Cubist works have, like Cubism itself, very little emotional content. The artists were not, like the Expressionists & their followers, trying to convey their personal feelings. Nor can these works be described as strange. The viewer does not feel that there is a hidden meaning. Post-Cubist works sometimes feature juxtapositions that are odd & surprising but this is all. These paintings are not Magic Realism Shone1977 Pls 48, 49, 56, 58-9, 63, 79, McConkey2006 pp 126, 128, 129, Harison Pls 34, 35-6, 42, 47-9, 51-2, 56, 57, 59, 67, 70, 83-4, 87-8, 105, 107, 121, Spalding1986 Pls 31, 41, 65, E&L pp 94, 99.

Development: British Modernistic painting was promoted by the Post-Impressionist Exhibitions of 1910 & 1912, & Wyndham Lewis & Bernard Adeney exhibited at the second show. In 1914 the Vorticist movement was founded by Wyndham Lewis & others who were inspired by Cubism & Italian Futurism See Vorticism/English Cubists in Section 8. Although the grouping was short-lived its harsh & fragmented forms inspired the Great War paintings by Nevinson & Paul Nash. In the United States Cubism with its linearity had a marked impact on the work of Joseph Strella & other artists Hughes1997 pp 375-8

Patrons: the American collector John Quinn who was persuaded to buy Vorticist works by the poet Ezra Pound OxDicMod

Principal Painters:

(a) GB: Atkinson, Bomberg, Dismoor, Etchells, Hamilton, Tristram Hillier; Kramer, Wyndham Lewis, Paul Nash, Nevinson, Eric Ravilious, William Roberts, Saunders, Wadsworth Spalding1986 p49; TurnerEtoPM pp 406-7, E&L pp 94, 99

(b) USA: Marin, Hartley, Weber, Stuart Davis; Rockwell Kent; Joseph Stella] See BrownM1955 p112

(c) Germany: Heinrich Hoerle, Franz Seiwert Roh pp 142-3

POST-IMPRESSIONISM, CUBISM & FUTURISM (40)

PROTO-ROCOCO & ROCOCO (12)

Term: From the mid-16^th century fancy shell work for fountains & grottoes was described as rocaille; & from around 1730 the word was applied to Rococo extravagance, & the Rococo itself. The word Rococo, a combination of rocialle & Baroque, was coined about 1796 by a pupil of David to refer disparagingly to the taste fashionable in the Louis XV era OxDicArt. Friedrich Vischer [the Hegelian author of Aesthitik, 1846-57] was probably the first to propose the term’s use in art history Baur p7. Burckhardt thought Rococo was a closing & decadent phase OxDicArt. It was rediscovered & rehabilitation by exponents of Art Nouveau etc (Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Richard Dehmel, Otto Bierbaum) Baur p7

Anticipations: The roots of Rococo painting go far back & included the work of Corregio, Veronese, Liss, Francisco Herrera the Younger, Cavallino & Berchem L&L, Waterhouse1962 pp 125, 182-3, Levey 1966 pp 19-21.

Adam Pynacker [anticipated the Rococo style] with his lively & sparking effects & use of [distinctive] blue green & blue grey colours Haak p469. Giordano has been seen as a pioneering Rococo painter Levey1977 p24.

Proto-Rococo:

Baroque painting & classical painting were followed by a confused, half-way house period in which elements of both styles were brought together. The transition from the Baroque era to Rococo was not clear cut nor seamless. In France there was a confused interregnum between the death of Le Brun in 1690 & that of Louis XIV in 1715. It was a period of eclecticism & a generation of French painters with divided loyalties hovering between Le Burn’s strict academic tradition & the new tendency towards decorative painting & Venetian colour Wakefield pp 12-16. Similarly in Italy there was a gradual switch from Baroque to Rococo Levey1966 p22. In Austria the switch to Rococo-like grace & colouration took place in the evolving work of Paul Troger & was complete by 1752 Grove p357. The death of Maulbertsch, the greatest Rococo painter in Austria, brought this movement to an end in 1796 L&L

The transitional period between Baroque & Rococo has been termed Barochetto or Baroochetto. It denotes a mix of Baroque-Rococo in vogue during the early 18^th century, & is an Italian architectural & sculptural term for work that is light hearted, elegant & decorative NGArt1986 p450, Getty website. The painters in question were Marcantonio Franceschini in Bologna, & Charles Antoine Coypel, Francois Lemoyne & Charles Natoire in France NGArt1986 p450

Background:

Colbert’s death in 1683 was followed by increasing absolutism & aggressive & ruinous wars. There was now increasing intellectual opposition to Lebrun’s orthodoxy within the French Academy, as shown by the Quarrel of Colour & Design & the battle of the ancients & moderns. The consequence was greater artistic diversity See Academy, French in Section 6, Disegno & Colorito / The Quarelle du Coloris between the Poussinists & Rubenists in Section 7. A little later younger members of the royal family, bored with the formality & pomposity of Lebrun’s followers, wanted painting that was gayer & more decorative, with a lighter treatment of Classical mythology Blunt1954 pp 255-8 .

The death of Louis XIV in 1715 led to a marked change in the social & political climate. During his last years Versailles had been a solemn & rigid place where it was, for instance, necessary to bow to empty throne & royal bed. Philip of Orleans who became regent lived in Paris & the aristocracy left Versailles. They & Philip, who was drunken & dissipated, devoted themselves to pleasure & so afterwards did Louis V, Watteau became the royal painter des fetes galantes & in 1735 Boucher received his first royal commission. This was followed by numerous royal orders & from 1747 by those from Madame de Pompadour, the king’s mistress who became his most enthusiastic admirer & patron Palocios pp 7-8, Cobban pp 18-9, Grove 4 p513, 516-7. Besides the court itself patronage was also provided by allied social circles, especially the fermiers-generaux one of whom was Fragonard’s chief patron Antal1966 p7

In the intellectual field there was around 1700 a revolution in thought in which authority, dogma, duty & a vindictive God were replaced by the laws of nature & by rights Hazard pp 7, 341. There was a steady decline in life viewed as tragedy & humanity as inherently sinful. Religion was now seen as “a cheerful thing” (Halifax) & God as “best-natured” (Shaftesbury) Willey pp 10-11. Locke’s pleasure-pain analysis of motivation, associated with rationalism & individualism, facilitated by the development of a hedonistic theory. Self-love became virtuous & luxury admirable (Voltaire), & even vices served good ends (Mandeville). Happiness & pleasure were the only real values (Jenyns, La Mettrie etc). The pleasures stressed were primarily physical & obedience to the passions was considered the basis of morality (Toussaint, Duclos, Morelly, La Mettrie) NCMH7 p97, Cobban p85. Though hostile to the ornamental excesses of Rococo architecture, Voltaire shared the era’s refined Epicureanism & the pursuit of happiness & pleasure. He thought civilised society was preferable to a barbarous state of nature from which the arts had helped us emerge Wakefield pp 56-7. The supernatural in both its divine & diabolical forms ceased to be an explanation for extraordinary happenings with Satan banished earlier than GodWilley pp 3-4. His withdrawal was evident from the decline in the belief in witchcraft among the educated classes. However, even among those who opposed the witch craze, belief in satanic intervention persisted into the 17^th century & until the intellectual climate changed due to the scientific movement. The universe came to be regarded as a Great Machine governed by rigid, but God-given, laws of material causationTrevor-Roper1969 pp 100-111, Willey pp 3-5, 7. It is a mistake to view the 18^th century as typified by doubt & skepticism. Watteau when dying destroyed his nude studies etc. Moreover the French Church continued [at least in the earlier part of the century] to commission paintings on an extensive scale due to its wealth & the proliferation of seminaries Wakefield pp 11-2

Characteristics of Rococo:

The overall effect is one of grace, playfulness, lightness & the celebration of the sensuous, momentary & transient Brigstocke, Murrays1959, Vaughan 2002 pp 7-8. Characteristics of a more specific nature include:

(a) The most striking development, [& one apparently unremarked], is the absence of violence & the prevalence of amorous & loving relationships between the sexes. Watteau was the first great Rococo artist to paint works of the latter type & they were Boucher’s stock in trade Hyde pp 32-3, 39-41, 157, 184, 186, 189. The only unambiguous non-religious scene of violence painted by a top Rococo artist appears to be The Bolt by Fragornard where a seduction seems to be turning into rape Ashton1988 p219 , There are it is true more than a dozen paintings by Boucher of a story from Ovid’s Metamorphoses in which Jupiter assumes the guise of Diana in order to ravish Callisto. However, these enabled Boucher to depict two apparent females in a lesbian relationship, the description & depiction of which is commonly used in erotica. It is moreover questionable whether Jupiter’s designs are intended rape not only because his future conduct is not known but also because the sex of the two figures is indeterminate, & what appears at first glance to be the male figure could be female. In one version of the painting Boucher has associated Callisto with Jupiter’s eagle, the apparent indicator of sex status Hyde pp 205, 215. Works showing unwarranted violence are more frequent in the work of Tiepolo especially in his religious paintings but they are exceptional Levey 1986 pp 28, 52, 67, 77, 92-3, 157 .

(b) Paintings are often are often erotic & in some cases strikingly so (the Boullonge brothers, Charles Antoine Coypel, La Fosse, & Jean-Baptiste Santerre) OxDicArt, Blunt1954 pp 273, 275-6; Diderot complained of Boucher’s bosoms, bottoms & libertinage Hyde pp 3, 188. There are sveltely

Elegant females with graciously relaxed poses & tapered, somewhat elongated, limbs (Franceschini, Trevisani, Lemoyne) NGArt1986 p450.

Young women on swings are a speciality (Boucher, Fragonard, Lancret, Pater, etc) ShearerW1996, Baur p36. However there was surprisingly little frivolous & erotic painting in Venice, & there was no Venetian Boucher or Fragonard Haskell pp 257-8.

(c) Portraiture: Baroque trappings & psychological complexities have been abandoned. The social status of the sitter is made evident but he or she is ready to converse with social equals. Sitters are alert, animated & relaxed in simple & everyday dress. Sometimes they are reading & embroidering Kitson1966 p131, Ashton 1988 p186, Hyde p131

(d) Diagonals are exaggerated; there are extravagant curves that evoke shell patterns, elaborate ornamental flourishes, & an artificial representation of nature Ashton1988 p14.

(e) Media: Pastel is used in portraits. It lacks the density & luminosity of oils, was useless for dark shadows, but was excellent for soft pale colouring Kitson1966 p131.

(f) Distinctive colours: Light sparkling colours & pastel tones are employed with an emphasis on white, silver, gold, rose-pink, light green, sky & pale blue. Dark colours were avoided Hyde p11, Brigtocke, L&L

Painters:

(a) Transitional , Eclectic or Early: Bon & Louis de Boullogne the Younger; Antoine & Noel-Nicolas Coypel; La Fosse; Franceschini; Jouvenet; Lemoine; Regaud; Santerre; Trevisani NGArt1986 p450, Waterhouse1962 p83; Blunt1954 pp 273-6, 280, L&L; Wakefield pp 42-3 [What about Cignani & Crespi?. Because of my decision to treat Rigaud & other French painters as basically Baroque thislist needs to be reconsidered]

(b) Rococo: Asam; Belotto; Boucher; Carriera; De La Tour; de Troy; Fragonard; Guardi; Gunther; Lancret; Largilliere; Liotard; Longhi; Maulbertsch; Nattier; Perronneau; Pittoni; Schmidt; Subias; Tiepolo; Troger; Watteau; Zimmermann, Zuccarelli Levey1966; OxCompArt; L&L; Baur; Wakefield p51; Kitson1966 p131

Engravers: Audran; Berain OxDicArt

REALISM, 18^TH CENTURY NARRATIVE, ETC: (13)

Term/Characteristics: It was recognised as a distinct category by Micha\el Kitson who saw it as a modified continuation of Dutch 16^th century Genre & as consisting chiefly of bourgeois activity regarded from a moral standpoint. It had a stronger narrative & story telling element than in Vermeer & de Hooch etc with Chardin’s scenes implying the moment before & after the one depicted with the card house about to fall, the meal about to be eaten after grace, & the child being dressed about to go walking. In Hogarth & Greuze the preoccupation with narrative became obvious & explicit as shown by Hogarth’s paintings in series Kitson1966 p122. These however were not the only type of realism & naturalism that were produced during the 18^th century. There were in particular Conversation Paintings, sport & sporing scenes, paintings of animals, & the factual & precise townscapes of Canaletto & other artists, together with the direct middle class naturalistic portraits by Aved, Chardin, de La Tour Wakefield pp 58-9; See also in Section 3 Conversation Pieces & Paintings, Sport & Sporting Scenes, Animals, & Kitson1966 p115.

Influences: There was a tradition of realistic painting in Naples & north Italy Levey1966 pp 130-1. Hogarth’s engravings were much in demand in 18^th century Italy Antal1962 p205.

Features: An important feature of 18^th century Realism was the total absorbtion of those depiicted in the activity in which they were engaged. This was not a new development but what was distinctive about its re-appearance in Chardin, & its continuation by Greuze & Fragonard, was its occurance in secular, genre works Fried1980 pp43-5, See also Fried in Section 4. Another crucial revival was genre painting itself. It had languished in France after the early part of the 17^th century, [scarcely existed in Italy & Great Britain], & had wilted in what had previously been its great center: the Netherlands & Flanders See Genre in Section 3. During the 18^th century genre flourished. It made a decisive appearance with Watteau & was continued by Chardin, his lesser followers, & by Greuze. Genre of another type appeared in the Converation Pieces of Mercier in France & Devis, Hayman & Hogarth in England L&L. [The latter then went on to produce a bevy of genre works of the contemporary social scene. These were notable because the way in which they covered a wide spetrum of society & due to their moral element. This was later to be taken up by Greuze.] The moral comment in such 18^th century genre was far more explicit than it had been in Dutch 17^th century work. Here the upper classes escaped censure, ill-behaved peasants were merely regarded as humorous, & were the picture did have a moral it was difficult to percieve See Northern Realism.

Painters: Aubry; Aved; Bellotto; Canaletto; Ceruti; Chardin; Hogarth; Greuze; Jeurat; Largilliere ; Maurice-Quentin De La Tour; Lepice; Longhi; Moretti; Tocque; Traversi; Troost; Zoffany Kitson1966 p122; Wakefield pp 14, 58-9, 63, 65-6, 132, 135; P&R p34; Levey1966 pp 130-2; Wittkower1973 pp 503-5; Antal1962 p203, NCMH7 p79. [This is a provisional list & the whole item is in need of further work]

REALISM FROM 1945: (56)

Term/Concept: It is my own & something of a ragbag, embracing all post-war Realists that are not covered elsewhere, i.e. not Kitchen Sink or Photorealist

Development: There was a reaction in Britain during the late 1970s against conceptual art together with a revival of traditional media & a call for more social art. Two exhibitions were mounted in 1978 to promote the work of artists who sought to engage with a wide public: Art for Whom, selected by the art critic Richard Cork, at the Serpentine Gallery & Art & Society at the Whitechapel Art Gallery. Kitaj & Hockney now promoted a return to figuration with Kitaj castigating conceptualism for its ariditySpalding1986 pp 225-6, 229

Sub-groups:

(a) There were British painters who belonged to the NEAC, which was a Realist bastion of long standing (Paul Ayshford; Bernard Dunstan; Richard Eurich; Ken Howard; John Ward; etc)McConkey2006;

(b) Another group were the British painters who had been trained in 1950s & 60s at the Slade, then a Realist centre, under Coldstream (Michael Andrews, John Lessore, Euan Uglow, and John Wonnacott).

(c) There were also a group of Spanish Realists (Antonio Lopez Garcia; Maria Morento; Antonio Lopez Torres; Isabel Quintanilla) who had family or friendship ties & were mainly active in MadridOxDicMod

Characteristics: Because this is a residual grouping the painters are somewhat heterogeneous. Nevertheless they have much in common. (a) They all rejected abstract art, together with innovation & originality for its own sake. (b) Their subject matter was of a traditional type, including the nude (Pearlstein & Freud), which had become unusual. (c) Their concerns were also traditional, in particular illusionistic space & tonal values. (d) They all appeared to love paint as a substance, to take pleasure in its deliberate & planned manipulation, to use it more or less sparingly. (e) They rejected heavy impasto (which rules out Hockney &, even more clearly, Auerbach & Kossoff). (e) They achieved painterly non-linear & non-photographic effects (unlike the Photorealists & Hockney). (f) Their ethic was one of craftsmanship & they eschewed bad workmanship (unlike the Kitchen Sink School). (g) They were not preoccupied by political & ideological concerns (like some members of the Kitchen Sink School). However this does not mean that their work was necessarily tame (witness Fischl & Freud). (h) They were not over-concerned to express their own egos & depict their emotional states; consequently their work is never solipsistic. (i) They were not afraid of beauty, although their work might not be beautiful in any conventional sense (Freud, Fischl, Pearlstein). (j) Finally, the recognition of their merits by major galleries, funding bodies & the art establishment was tardy (Freud, Eurich, Wyeth) or has yet to occur (some NEAC painters).

Painters: Michael Andrews; Charlotte Ardizzone; Paul Ayshford/Lord Methuen; David & Diana Armfield; Bailey; Elinor Bingham-Smith; Edward Bishop; Jason & William Bowyer; Robert Brown; Lionel Bulmer; Burchfield; Rodney Burn; David Calvert; Cosmo Clark; Thomas Coates; John Cole; Jane Corsellis; Frederick Cuming; Anthony Devas; Fred Dubery; Bernard Dunstan; Richard Eurich; Fischl; Freud; Margaret Green; Antonio Lppez Garcia; Edward Hall; Charlotte Halliday; Ken Howard; Mary Jackson; Pamela Kay; Kitaj; Peter Kuhfeld; John Lessore; Charles McCall; Maria Morento; John Napper; Charles Oakley; Fairfield Porter; Edward & Margaret Pullee; Dawn Sidoli; Andrew Wyeth; Pearlstein; Richard Pikesley; Porter; Isabel Quintanilla; Margaret Thomas; Daphne Todd; Tooker; Antonio Lopez Torres; Euan Uglow; John Ward; Neil Welliver; John Wonnacott; Martin Yeoman;L&L;OxDicArt;Hughes1991 pp 352, 354-7,420; Spalding1986 pp 229-230; McConkey2006 (Chs 7, 8), Wilcox1990

See also Romantic-Sublime

RENAISSANCE, EARLY ITALIAN, (3) Excluding International Gothic:

Also see Crisis in Chrisendom, 1100- 1500 in Section 7

[terrible overlap between Iconography sub-section & Virgin Mary & also Iconography, Religious]

Term: The Italian Renaissance may be said to have begun with Cimabue & Giotto. This at least was the view of Vasari, although he appears to have attached particular importance to the latter Murrays1963 p7, Vasari1 pp 19, 65-6, 69. During his own time & place he had he had an unrivalled reputation as the best painter & as an innovator superior to all his contemporaries Grove12 p681.

The Initial Period: During the 13^th & 14^th centuries the middle class wanted art would bring man closer to God both intellectually & spiritually. There was a demand for works of a humanised narrative & story telling variety with less emphasis on symbolism & dogma. The following developments took place:

(a) Gigantic ritual & cult images of Christ & the Virgin enthroned in the apse or in the dome, gave way to more life-like & accessible pictures,

(b) There were human scenes from the lives of Christ, the Virgin & the Saints, with the latter receiving much greater attention than previously,

(c) Especially in 14^th century, & also in Northern Europe images of a purley devotional nature were produced. They were mostly associated with the Passion. Hence there was an increase in intelligibility & feeling although the stress shifted from the former, when the upper bourgeoisie was strong, to emotion which appealed more to the petty bourgeoisie Antal pp 136-8.

(d) Figures became incresingly naturalistic & crowded together, together with landscape & new themes which included:

(i) Holy figures in contemporary dress,

(ii) Pictorial enrichment through resort to the apocryphal gospels & the Meditationes Vitae Chriti (c1300), together with religious drama, which was itself partly inspired by the Meditationes

(iii) Due to the influence of the Franciscans & the Meditationes the Virgin was transformed from the formal Queen of Heaven into both the leading post-Crucifixion mourner & a gentle & loving mother who sometimes moved from a throne to a cusion, or even the ground & into a family group. She was often towards the mid-14^th century with S. Anne,

(iv) Christ on the Cross, who had previously been standing alive, upright & even partly clothed, was now shown naked &, especially from the mid-13^th century, suspended, emaciated & agonised. Although with the supremacy of the high bourgeois supremacy during the early 14^th century he became more heroic & idealised, as in Giotto Antal pp 138-45.

Development: The humanisation of religious figures by the early 13^th century Italian artists reached its climax in Giotto, 1301-37. Previously distant, & otherworldly figures now became warm & human Eimerl pp 26-7. From his time Byzantine stylisation was repaced by a stress on the moral weight of sacred events rather than divine splendour. Giotto introduced a new naturalism & his frescoes had a convincing sense of three-dimensionality & physical presence OxDicArt. He helped to introduce & develop the true fresco painting of the Italian Renaissance Grove32 p805.

After the Black Death in 1348 painting became more stylised & hieratic. This was the period when International Gothic, which has been treated as a separtate Movement, was the predominant artistic style L&L, Murrays p 17, See International Gothic.. However Giottesque painting dis not stand still. Taddeo Gaddi, around 1325-1366, one of Giotto’s most faithfull followers, introduced dynamic light & spatial effects, including foreshortening & playfulf architectural constructions Grove11 pp 888-90. The greatest developments were made by Masaccio, 1401-28, who was lnspired by Giotto Murrays1959, Murrays1963 p50, OxDicArt His perspective & foreshortening were geometricllay correct, his lightening was naturalistic from a single source, & it cast graduated shadows. The figures were strongly modelled & his nudes of Adam & Eve that were both anatomically accurate & dramatically expressive L&L, Brigstocke . From around 1450 Fra Angelico, c1397-1455, now under the inflouence of Masaccio, began painting works that were tender, meditative & delicately luminous L&L, Brigstocke. Hitherto paintings had, portraits apart, been almost exculsively religious but during the mid-1450s Uccello, c1397-1475, produced his three large panels illustrating the Rout of San Romano. These battle scenes were evidently painted to decorate the new Palazzo Medici in Florence & were therefore wholly secular Grove31 p514.

As such they were part of yet another developent: the purchase of paintings for pleasure for the first time in a thousand years BurkeP p84. Paintings set in classical antiquity, like those produced by Mantega for the Eremitani Church which were completed in 1451, were another innovationj Camesasca pp3-7.

General Characteristics of 15^th century works prior to the High Renaissance: Figures move in a stiff or unduly agitated manner Wolfflin1899 pp 231-3, 235. Paintings display a delight in a multiplicity of small surface undulations using restless broken lines Wolfflin1899 pp 252, 254. Clothing enabled easy movement Wolfflin1899 p240.. Gay & beautiful colours & effects were employed Wolffflin1899 pp 243, 252. Clothing was allowed to become an independent feature Wolffflin1899 p261. Female beauty was of slender, elogated & youthful type, as in the girl-angels of Botticelli & Filippino with their sharp articulations & skinny arms. Boys were lean & supple boy Wolfflin1899 pp 235-9. There was a defective understanding of body structure with loin-cloths were used to conceal the transition from the torso to extremeties. Recumbent nudes were lumpy, piecemeal & not properly articulated Wolffflin1899 pp 264-6. Instead of the modelling & shadowing of heads there was mere eye gleam Wolffflin1899 pp 261-2. When figures were painted in groups they were close packed & confused or stratified with flat figures standing along a horizontal line Wolfflin1899 pp 273-4, 276.

Painters:

[Include all Italian painters apart from the following the following International Gothic artists:

Botticelli, Broderlam, Gentile da Fabriano, Stefano da Verona Ghiberti (elements), the Limbourg Brothers, Filippino Lippi, Lochner, Master Honore; Master of Wittingau, Simone Martini, Pisanello, Pucelle Murrays 1959, OxDicArt, Grove26 p186, etc ]

RENAISSANCE, INTERNATIONAL GOTHIC: (2)

Term & Historiography:Burchardt contrasted the optimistic individualism of Renaissance Italy with the later medieval culture in northern Europe whish was characterized by self-conscious & introspective aestheticismGrove13 p155. International Gothic was first distinguished in 1892 by Professor Louis Courajod, who worked at the Louvre.He considered it to be a traditional style preceding the Renaissance which he thought was rooted in France, not Italy.The term was then used to describe a European-wide movement associated with courtly patronage, the importance of which was first observed at the beginning of the 20^thcentury by the Viennese art historian von SchlosserEorsi, p5,Grove13 p155, Wikip.International Gothic has alternatively been called the Soft Style (Schone Stil) or Beautiful Style (Weichter Stil) Eorsi p6, Wikip.

Background:

(a)The Towns: Although the renaissance of urban life started earlier, it was not until around 1100 that it reached full development & the first real cities appeared in northern Italy & the Low Countries. Commerce between these two areas arose by way of the Gothard Pass, the Lake of Geneva & the Jura, with the fairs of Champagne becoming the point of contact. Besides these key areas other urban centers developed in the south of France through Mediterranean commerce & in Germany & Austria because of the trade routes along the Rhine & Danube, the Baltic & the North Sea. The rise of the towns led to an increase in population which roughly doubledPirenne1936 pp 277-30. [Towns gaining their independence because this was to the financial advantage of those who ruled.]

(b)Religious Consequences: The renaissance of urban life gave rise to a religious upsurge. There was an extraordinary increase in the number of confraternities of all types that devoted themselves to prayer & charity. The urban bourgeoisie could not have been more religious & without its support the new mendicant orders, the Franciscans & Dominicans, could not have flourished. They were recruited from the bourgeoisie &, together with the artisans, became brothers in the tertiary orders associated with the Franciscans. Monasticism deserted the countryside for the townsPirenne1936 pp 239-40. Within 30 years of their foundation Franciscans (& Dominicans) had established friary houses, with churches designed like great preaching barns, though some friars remained peripateticSekules p96.

(c)Devotio Moderna: This denotes the way in which religion became more passionate, more individual, & more private with an essential element of personal mysticism. This showed up in the new artistic themes of the period: the Madonna of Humility & the Man of Sorrows. Both literature & art show the greater degree of autonomy attained by writers & artistsWalters pp xiii, xiv.

(d)Worth: Under Louis IX of France (reigned 1226-70) & his mother Blanche of Castile, there developed an “aesthetic of preciousness”: an elite notion of the decoration that was appropriate for extreme piety, & this then set the standard throughout Europe. The palace chapel of Saint-Chapelle in Paris (commissioned by Louis IX) is often seen as originating a trend to jewel-like architectureSekules p94.Moreover, materials & artistry were closely linked & the more expensive & rare the substance the more deserving it was of fine craftsmanship & designWelch p37.[The reverse also held] with works of art being valued according to their cost. The Neapolitan Humanist Giovanni Pontano said that occasionally a royal gift was not judged by its costWelch p79.

(e) The late Middle Ages was a period of somber melancholy in northern Europe as shown in chronicles, poems, sermons & legal documents. In the 15^thcentury it was only fashionable to see suffering, misery & decadence. Renaissance optimism was completely lacking &, as a way of escape, an imaginary past was conjured up, together with the desire to return to nature & the charms of shepherd life. The court, especially that of the Dukes of Burgundy, became the focus of a backward looking ideal of chivalry, etiquette & ceremonialHuizinga pp 31-3, 38-41.

(f) Panofsky, who together with Huizinga & Focillon, explored International Gothic regarded its mannered refinement & elegance as an aristocratic reaction against the threat of a rising bourgeoisie & as an attempt to re-establish class hierarchies, especially between peasants & aristocrats, eg the depiction of Joseph as a peasant in Nativity scenes. However, the style was then Italianized & spread by the new classes, assisted by the breakdown of regionalizing ecclesiastical patronage & the guild systemGrove13 p155.

Development: International Gothic is often considered to have originated around 1390ThomasM p12, Murrays1959. However, it had its origins around 1250 in France where French royalty became ardent patrons of the book arts & there were also other extensive sources of demand. Illustrators developed a distinctive style characterized by exquisite ornament & slender swaying, almost mannered figures in broad-fold drapery against an elaborate architectural backgroundOxDicArt & See France.

Under French influence, International Gothic was then developed in Italy by Martini in Siena etcMurrays1963p18. New Italian ideas spread to Avignon when the papacy move there & where Martini arrived in about 1340Murray1963pp 18-9. The Black Death of 1348 had a sobering effect, & the religious climate became sombre, but at the very end of the century a new note of joy in living & in worldly vanities appeared at the court of Burgundy, centered on Dijon Murrays1963pp 17-8. It spread rapidly to Italy ([Gentile da Fabriano]), Germany (Lochner) & Bohemia (Master of Trebon/Wittingau)Murrays1959.

From the early 15^thcentury International Gothic was in competition with the new Florentine realism of Masaccio & DonatelloMurrays1963pp 27-9.International Gothic remained influential for many years & was even revived towards the end of the 15^thcenturyMurrays1959. It started with decoration by Gozzoli & was later taken up by Botticelli & Filippino Lippi with their courtly & refined styleGrove26 p186.

Characteristics: International Gothic featured stylization of a fluid, curvilinear, elegant & refined type using a decorative line & with figures elongated & having subtle forms. There was a new interest in secular aristocratic art & a new appreciation of sensuous qualities, [including delicate colour]OxCompArt, Steer p37. (We enjoy colour for its own sake but in medieval times it was considered the manifestation of the divine light in the created worldWalters pxv.) There was also a new realism but this was confined to the details of landscape, animals etcMurrays1959.Beautifully & naturalistically coloured details were sometimes set against dark backgrounds, as in Pisanello, & tonal contrasts were marked Steer p37. Drawings, as well as model-books, were now used as a source for detailsMurrays1963p27,Grove13 p155.

Production: Work on illuminations was divided between specialists responsible for the margins, backgrounds & the actual painting; though this was often a collaborative effort, especially where the illumination was large & elaborateThomasM p11

Artists: Botticelli, Broderlam, Gentile da Fabriano, Stefano da Verona Ghiberti (elements), Limbourg Brothers, Filippino Lippi, Lochner, Master Honore; Master of Wittingau, Simone Martini, Pisanello, PucelleMurrays 1959, OxDicArt, Grove26 p186, etc

ROMANESQUE & MEDIEVAL PAINTING, including Ottonian art & Carolingian Renaissance:

Terms: Mediaeval & Middle Ages are fatally ambiguous terms SEE Section8. The most appropriate word for a distinct Movement in western European painting, which came between Roman & Byzantine art on the one hand & International Gothic on the other, is Romanesque. For painting it has at its widest been taken to mean the period from the close of the 8^th to the 12^th century & well into the 13^th. A vital date was 800 when Charlemagne, King of the Franks, was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III in Rome, an act which established the Holy Roman Empire Lucie-S1975, Beckwith p9, Grove26 p648, Fisher p159.

Location/Presence of Surviving Wall Paintings: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, Ireland, Italy, France, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland Grove26 pp 648-50, Pichard p12.

Political Background:

Prior to the Romanesque period there was following the demise of the Roman Empire a long period in western Europe that was not conducive to the production of art, though there was some particularly in Ravenna & also of a Byzantine type. Successive tribal waves were moving westwards into what were relatively unpopulated areas sometimes driving out the existing inhabitants & often making peace & settling down. Amongst others this took place under Clovis, c466-511, who defeated the last semi-Roman general of Gaul & established the huge Merovingian realm over much of the west of the European continent DaviesN in particular pp 215-9, 232, 234. Charles Martel routed the Islamic invaders at Poitiers in 732, the emperor Otto 1 defeated the Magyars in 955, & the former Norsemen took control of Sicily by around1070. Only then did the incursions into central & western Europe come to an end DaviesN pp 316, 336, 339, Fisher pp 143, 193, 419,

Invasion & re-settlement led to the establishment of feudalism. In Germany old tribal assemblies disappeared & Clovis & his heirs had power absolute checked only by the threat of assassination or revolt. Most of the kingdom was already divided into districts & these were extended to the whole of the realm & placed under a hereditary count to whom land was assigned. Military service was a duty for all free men & besides the invaders included those Gallo-Romans who volunteered. What emerged was a feudal system of mutual obligation & protection in which the peasant serfs were obliged to provide labour service on the home farms of the aristocrats & big landowners. The small owners often found safety by surrendering their land & receiving it back as a life tenant. Before long all available land had been distributed & it became necessary to confiscate property belonging to the church. Roman order was now replaced by turbulent counts & disorder. Town populations decreased P-O pp160-6

Monasticism: Its father in the West was St Benedict, c480-543, who instituted an ordered & practical code, the Rule, for the working of a monastery & began establishing Benedictine monasteries. Another crucial figure was Cassiodorus, died 583, who gave the Benedictines an ethos of learning. The Benedictines rapidly accumulated endowments of land, manual labour was abandoned to servants or inferior classes of celebrates, & monasteries became centres for the preservation & study of ancient culture. However, invasion & disorder had an adverse effect on zeal & discipline. Monks lived outside their monasteries & sometimes married while the monastics themselves were often corrupt institutions now headed on a hereditary basis by lay abbots who absorbed the greater part of the revenues of the wealthiest institutions. There was then a reform movement centred on Cluny under the notable abbots Odo, 927-42; Odilio, 994-1048; & Hugh 1049-1109 P-O pp 283-8, 472-5.

Characteristics: Romanesque painting is more concerned with expression than narration. Although Christ appeared in great apocalyptic & prophetic visions his face was more animated & individualised than in Byzantine art. Together with the great biblical figures he is generally depicted as a living person with the apparently rare Christ in Majesty as the exception. Byzantine art is largely static but Romanesque is one of movement. Backgrounds are crowded with figures, hybrids, fauna & flora, stars & shapes. It is linear, simplified, geometric, decorative, & colourful with crisp, cloisonne boundaries. Form clinging damp fold drapery is employed as a decorative feature Pichard pp 17-9, See also illustrations pp 13,15-6, 18. 20-2, 24, 27-8, 33-5, 37-40, 43, 45-9, 51-3, 55-6, 58, 61-2, 65, 67, 69-71, 76, 79-81, 83-4, 87; Beckwith pp 32, 39-42, 54, 57-8, 90, 95, 99, 108, 125, 182, 187-8 193, 197, 201 but see pp112, 115; See Section 5 for damp fold.

ROMANTIC CLASSICAL REALISM: (20) Biedermeier et al

Term: [My own] but it has been recognised that Realism, meaning fidelity to observed nature, was one facet of Romanticism, & German Realist painting is often termed Biedermeier Realism Norman1987 pp 8, 21. On the other hand, the Danish Golden Age painters (Eckersberg, Kobke, Hansen, Marstrand, Dahl, Rorbye), who are regarded as Biedermeier, have been labelled Classicists Kent Ch 2.

It is widely recognised that Romanticism & Classicism are not necessarily opposites but may go together, as shown by the term Romanticism-Classical, which means Romantic sentiment together with antique subject matter. This category was first used in Germany by Siegfried Gierdon, 1922 TurnerRtoI p306. Hugh Honour treats both Biedermeier & Danish Golden Age painters as part of the Romantic movement (Kobke, Dahl, Blechen, Carus) Honour1979 pp 82-3, 106.

It is widely recognised that Romanticism & Classicism are not necessarily opposites but may go together, as shown by the term Romanticism-Classical, which means Romantic sentiment together with antique subject matter. This category was first used in Germany by Siegfried Gierdon, 1922 TurnerRtoI p306. Hugh Honour treats both Biedermeier & Danish Golden Age painters as part of the Romantic movement (Kobke, Dahl, Blechen, Carus) Honour1979 pp 82-3, 106.

Background:

(a) Economic: The Napoleonic Wars destroyed Germany’s economy & the fledgling industries, which had exported to France & the Netherlands during the Continental Blockade, now faced fierce competition from Britain & Belgium. This was also the case in Austria. However, prosperity returned in the 1830s. The first railways were built & from 1834 & the Prussian inspired customs union created a large home market Norman1987 p13, NCMH 9 pp 51-3.

(b) Political: For the German speaking world the period from 1815 to 1848 has been called the Age of Metternich. This refers to the absolutist monarchical system that prevailed in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, where Metternich was Chancellor, & to the kingdom of Prussia, which had just acquired the Rhineland Fisher pp 868, 929. In 1819 the Diet of the new German Confederation, which was dominated by Austria & Prussia, voted for the Carlsbad Decrees Norman1987 p13, NCMH 9 pp 8, 393. These established press censorship & commissions to investigate universities & dismiss staff & students. However, outside Austria & Prussia the political situation was more relaxed, eg in Bavaria which had a narrow franchise & civil rights, & in Saxony NCMH 9 p16. Moreover it must not be assumed that authoritarian rule was deeply unpopular. After the sufferings & depredations of the war years there was a longing for peace & quietness throughout the German speaking lands, & indeed for a time throughout Europe NCMH 9 p393, ThomsonD pp 110 -11. In the Austrian Empire a substantial part of the middle classes derived their livelihoods from serving the monarchy. Only the intellectual German professional & entrepreneurial classes, together with German-speaking Jews, fretted against the dead hand of bureaucracy & came to desire reform. This was particularly the case in Vienna NCMH 9 p411. Hence, during the period after 1815, the Austrian & Bohemian lands were remarkably tranquil NCMH 9 p404. In Germany a handful of German nationalists were active & vocal after 1815 but from 1820 until 1840 there was a long period of what historians have described as the “quiet years” Taylor1945 pp 47-52. Denmark’s political system was absolutist but it was bureaucratic rather than reactionary & there was little opposition NCMH 9 pp 17, 491-2. It has been argued that the middle classes turned inwards & devoted themselves to home & family life during the Biedermier period Norman1987 p13. [That they did so devote themselves seems evident, but is the reference to turning inwards correct? It is being assumed that at that time & in these counties it was to be expected that they would turn outwards, i.e. demand what has come to be seen as political progress.

Influences: The Classical & Poussinist technique of clean & smooth finish was prevalent Norman1987 p19. The Classical tradition was reinforced by David who taught Eckerberg & Kraft; & also by David’s pupil Gros who taught Begas Norman1987 p18. However, there was some continuing Rubenist influence in Vienna, & this was reinforced (i) by Heinrich Fuger, the director of the Vienna Academy, who was much influenced by Gainsborough & Reynolds, (ii) by Lawrence, when he painted his Congress of Vienna portraits, & (iii) by Wilkie, when his Reading of the Will was purchased in 1826 by Ludwig I of Bavaria Norman1987 pp 19, 20.

Another important influence was Valenciennes on landscape. In his Elements de la Perspective Practique, 1800, he advocated sketching from nature as a preliminary to the production of studio works Norman1987 p19.

Characteristics:The artists opposed academic & religious painting. Their works were usually small, having separate, clear tones, high finish & specific documentary & narrative content. Family & other groups set in detailed interiors & gardens were popular. Although an individual’s interests were stressed, characterisation lacked any deep psychological exploration TurnerRtoI p51. According to Geraldine Norman, pure genre was rare except for Vienna, where it flourished. However, genre-like portrait groups were frequent & popular Norman1987 p10. Landscape views stressed human & domestic associations; & framing devices were often used to heighten a sense of enclosure. Industrial & railway views became increasingly popular TurnerRtoI p51. Preperparatory studies were made directly from nature but final works were highly finished with almost invisible brushstrokes, except for Achenbach, Blechen, Danhauser, Nigg, Petter, Rottmann, Schindler & the later work of Amerling Norman1987 pp 8, 20, 32, 40, 50, 130.

Almost by definition Romantic-Classical-Realist paintings avoid challenging social issues, times of acute domestic stress, or reference to disturbing crime or violence. If poverty or injury are shown the treatment is humorous, tearfully sentimental or distressing. Even prisons are depicted as having some contented inmates. Norman1987 pp 30-1, 36-7, 52-3, 56-7, 124-5, 134-5. Paintings involving social or political criticism are rare except for the radical wing of the Dusseldorf School, & the occasional painting by Waldmuler, where they were confined to the years just before & after the 1848 Revolution. The poor are often remarkably well-dressed Norman1987 pp 136-7, 144-5, MET1981 p20. In contrast to the British picturesque painting of the same era, genre & other paintings that feature the common people are infrequent & appear to be confined to the dissidents in Dusseldorf & to some of the members of the Salzburg School, such as Ludwig Richter Norman1987 p162 . Portraits of affluent women & paintings of contented families in affluent or comfortable circumstances are the norm. It is notable that the interiors of all social classes from the Emperor down to the petty bourgeois all have the same characteritic features Waissenberger p161. [In sum & as a general rule], Biedermier [& related] painting was a sunny, idyllistic depiction of everyday life in a realistic style MET1981 p22.

Patronage: The middle class who purchased small-scale pictures & members of ruling families who adopted bourgeois lifestyle sometimes as a matter of necessity after the Napoleonic confiscation of their estates Norman1987 p10.

Painters: Achenbach; Albrecht Amsterdam; Alt; Amerling; Beckmann; Begas; Bendz: Blechen; [Bonnington]; Carus; Catel; [Corot] (early), Danhauser; Dillis; Eckersberg; Gartner; Gauermann, Hansen; Hasenclever; Wilhelm Heine: Hubner; Hummel; Jensen; Kersting; Kobell; Kobke; Krafft; Kruger; Lundbye; Marstrand; Milande; Neder; Nerley; Nigg; Ferdinand Olivier; Petter; Domenico & Lorenzio Quaglio; Rayski; Reinhold; Rethel; [Richter]; Rorbye; Rottmann; Carl Schindler; Schedrin?, Schinkel; Schirmer; Schoppe; Schwingen; Schwind; Speckter; Spitzweg; Stieler; Stifter;Treml; von Rohden; von Schadow; Walesdmuller TurnerRtoI p51; OxDicArt; Norman1987.

ROMANTICISM: MELODRAMATIC (17)

Term: [It is my own but it ia a commonplace that] the Romantic movement often featured unbridaled expression of the passions, love of the exotic, & even absurdities. The Movement reached its apogee around 1830 in Britain, France & Germany Murrays 1959 p81

Background:

The first intense romantic movement to emerge were literary. Although he did not use the word Edmund Burke discussed melodrama in his Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, 1756Turner RtoI p344. A sense of the Sublime was aroused by things repellant due to hugeness, darkness, infinite extension etc. However, they were associated with what he termed Delight with ”infinity filling the mind “with that sort of delightful horror, which is the … truest test of the sublime Burke pp 35-6, 73. In Germany Sturm und Drang (Storm & Stress) which flourished between the 1750s & the 1780s See Sturm und Drang in Section 7. The young artist in Goethe’s novel The Sorrows of the Young Werther, 1774, is melancholy, ill at ease with society & hopelessly in love with an engaged woman. He ends by committing suicide. It caused a sensation throughout Europe & young men wore blue coats & yellow breeches in imitation of Werther OxCompEng pp 398, 1056. In England The Castle of Otranto, 1764, was the first Gothic novel & was followed between 1789 & 97 by a series of melodramatic works of which the most famous is The Mysteries of Udolpho. The German & English novelists dealt in imaginative terror replete with prisons, ghosts & ruins OxDicEng, Tompkins pp 243-4. Key works in the early 19^th century were Byron’s poem Child Harold’s Pilgrimage,1812, & Victor Hugo’s play Cromwell, 1827. Its Preface became a manifesto of the French Romantic movement OxCompEng p481. Stendhal attacked the Classical establishment as comprising the old, & those who had or wanted government appointments R&Z pp 10-11. There was a post-Napoleonic malise, the mal de siecle, which was reflected in Alfred de Musset’s poetry. His French youth complained, “There is no more youth…glory. A thick night covers the earth. And we shall be dead before the dawn” Honour1979 pp 41-2, OxCompEng

Development: The first clear-cut example of romatic melodrama were Piranesi’s Imaginary Prisons as revised & intensified in 1760 Clark1973 pp 45-50. From the 1770s there was a demonic & fantastic strain in British painting. It drew on ancient art & on Italian art including Michelangelo’s terribilita, Parmigiano’s perverse grace, & Salvator Rosa’s macabre scenes. French reason & discipline were rejected in favour of the extravagantly heroic & dramatic. The painters, who had often spent years in Rome, included Fuseli, the Runcimans, John Brown, Richard Cosway, James Barry, John Mortimer & RomneyDIA1968 p12. Fuseli was closely associated with the partisans of Sturm und Drang & has been treated as an extreme representative of the movement Antal1962 pp 12-3,22. There was a battle from the 1820s over Romanticism on which the Academie Francaise made a violet attack in 1824 R&Z p10. The Classical partisans, Ingres & Bidault, hated the Romantics TurnerRtoI pp 267, 364. In 1819 Gericault exhibited his melodramatic Raft of the Medusa R&J p120. At the 1824 Salon Delacroix’s Massacre of Chios & Ingres’ Vow of Louis XIII were exhibited. Their conforntation revealed what appeared to be the stark opposition between the Romantics & the Classicists R&J pp 125-7.

Characteristics: Romantic Melodrama is essentially theatrical & such paintings are often frissonic, though others are, like those of Blake, are deadly serious. The theatrical spectacles include nightmare scenes featuing ghosts & monsters; skeletons summoning the living to death; terrified animals; extreme & sadistic violence; sexual exploitation; hopelessness, melancholy & madness; suffering & despair; twisting, writhing bodies displaying fierce energy; insane action or, alternatively, lassitude & death. Even the drama ot the scientific experiment comes into use. The physical features employed include vertiginous hights, figures dwarfed by surrounding mountains, acataclysums, eruptions, apocopictic storms, & industrial furnace & fire scenes. The occasional heroic scene was not the Neo-Classical exemplum virtutis. Shakespeare provided material for irrational happenings. Paint &/or colour were used in a sensuous manner. Paintings were often strikingly large, as in Ward’s huge paintings of Gordale Scar R&J pp 57-8, 116-26, 145-7; Vaughan pp 222-256; Novotny pp 30, 32, Antal1956 Pl 34.

Patronage: Print Sellers had an important role in commissioning paintings which were often melodramatic. Here Boydell was particularly notable: he commissioned over 150 pictures fillustrating Shakespeare’s plays from over 30 painters. In 1789 he established a gallery in Pall Mall to promote his wares Watson p346, Grove4 p607, L&L. Boydell went bankrupt but his example was followed by Robert Bowyer who also commissioned woks & whose Historic Gallery in Pall Mall contained more than 100 paintings L&L.

Painters:

UK: Fuseli, John Martin, Romney (mostly drawings), James Ward, Wright of Derby Kidson pp 31, 33, 119, 124-136.

France: Boulanger, Boissard, Delacroix, Gericault, Gros (transitional), Scheffer

Spain: Goya,

Germany: Friedrich Muller Antal1962 p162

Russia: Karl Bryullov 50Rus p90

[More work necessary)

ROMANTICISM: NATURALISTIC (18)

Term: It was used by Robert Rosenblum for those who saw nature more empirically & less transcendentally than Samuel Palmer, Turner & Friedrich; namely Thomas Jones, Cotman, George Robert Lewis, & then Constable & Dahl. The Romantic Naturalists were essentially realists whereas for the transcendental painters the landscape experience was essentially mystic & otherworldly R&J pp 156-60. In the Grove Dictionary the term is also applied to the Barbizon School TurnerDtoI p363. However, nobody seems to have recognised that there was a joint British-Barbizon movement, although there was because their shared aims & close links. The Barbizon School was influenced by Constable after the Hay Wain had been exhibited at the 1824 SalonTurnerRtoI p33 . Moreover in 1834 Dupre visited England & was influenced by Constable, as well as Bonington & TurnerTurnerDtoI p154. Although unlike Constable’s dynamic nature, Rousseau was inspired by the torrid mid-day or by frozen winter evening stillness Clark1949 p154.

Background: Landscape of the Romantic-Naturalist type is comforting , diverting & absorbing not only for the viewer but also for painter. Romantic-Naturalist works can only be properly appreciated if it is recognised that they were painted in an Age of Despair See the Age of Despairin Section 7. The period that began in the early 19^th century was the great age of landscape & it seems probable that Romantic-Naturalist painting was in part a response to the pessimism & discontent of the period both as a solace & as a cry of anguish. According to Jean Bouret, Theodore Rousseau, was rebelling against, “an increasingly industrialized society, which was destroying nature in her guise of mother of man, his inspiration & consolation… Rousseau saw the Forest of Fontainebleau being stripped of its trees, Daubigny saw rivers being diverted, they all saw tarmac covering the roads, trains encroaching on the fields & garden, houses pushing back the rural suburbs, factories with their chimneys clouding the sky with smoke. And so, it became imperative to take refuge in the countryside; then the next stage was to celebrate the countryside in landscapes & so attract in their turn other people unwilling to be swallowed up by a civilization that had ceased to be on a human scale. The Barbizon school was certainly a movement of protest…both a movement of protest & a form of mystic Bouret p21.

Millet said that the peace & quiet of forests & fields was the most joyful thing he knew. He gloried in the wild flowers & the sun shining over the distant landscape. Nevertheless, he remained unhappy because he also saw the steaming horses at the plough & the exhausted ploughman trying to catch his breath Bouret pp 186, 217-8 . Although landscape provided comfort it was not sufficient to dispel his gloom. Constable, perhaps the greatest Romantic-Naturalist, painted some of the most delightful landscapes of all time. These were for a considerable period inspired by the beauty of the countryside in the Stour valley where he grew up, an area moreover which during his childhood had been blessed by unparalleled agricultural prosperity Helsinger pp 45-6, 51. He seems to have been protected by his memories & his father’s prosperity against the later agricultural distress. Up to 1817 he painted & sketched continually in the area, & thereafter, although he lived in London he largely relied for his large landscapes on sketches & preliminary paintings he had previously made. These continued to be happy scenes until the late 1820s during & after which he produced some gloomy works with of desolate ruin & wild sky as the big oil sketch for Hadleigh Castle, c1828-9, & Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows, 1831, demonstrate Parris pp 64, 69. These were inspired not only by the death of his beloved wife but also by political developments. He thought that the Church of England was under attack & was alarmed by the Reform Bill Leslie p198-9. It had become for Constable, who was a Tory, a time of near despair.

Characteristics: The distinguishing feature of the Romantic-Naturalist painting of landscape is the depiction of nature as it appears when diligently observed without the sacrifice of a sense of dramatic unity. Painters had long been able to achieve one or other of these aims. Durer had painted watercolour studies of assorted plants in a natural setting which it would be difficult to better See Wolf p41. And the painters of Ideal Landscape had, like Claude, provided their landscapes with a distinctive aura & atmosphere. However, only rarely had artists managed to combine the two possible approaches. The landscapes of Rubens are an exception but they were few in number & were painted to please himself. In Ideal Landscape the sense of dramatic unity was preserved by only by the suppression of realistic detail that might have been distracting & the use of composition that is somewhat formulaic. Only a few of the Dutch Realists such as Van Ruisdael anticipate later Romantic-Naturalism. Moreover, the pervious concentration on a narrow range of tonal variations & brownish colouring differentiated previous landscape from that of the Romantic-Naturalists Gombrich1960 pp 40-43.

The countryside as portrayed by the Romantic-Naturalists is not for the most part wild, untamed & lonely. This is of course true of the Valley of the Stour & Hampstead Heath where Constable painted but also to a surprising extent to Barbizon artists who painted who worked in the environs of the Forest of Fontainebleau. Here the landscape is more often than not man made & figures are present Bouret. In the works of Millet, they are often hard at work but in the paintings of Constable, the lesser English artists, & the Barbizon school works they are pausing, resting or, as in Constable, fishing. This is a feature of Romantic-Naturalism though not a unique characteristic of its landscape painting. A pre-eminent aspect of Romantic-Naturalist painting & of qualifying as romantic in the most obvious sense of the word is that it was painted with love. This is evident from the works themselves, from use of the word love in connection with what was being painted, & from the difficulty of explaining why otherwise they painted some of the subjects they chose Leslie pp 85-6, Bouret p179. How else to account for Buildings in Naples, 1782, by Thomas Jones?

Painters: Vicat Cole, Constable, Cotman, Daubigny, Diaz, Dahl [??], Dankvart Dreyer [??] Dupre, Charles-Emile Jacque, Thomas Jones, George Robert Lewis, Millet [??],Redgrave, Theodore Rousseau, Constant Troyon

ROMANTIC: PICTURESQUE: (16)

See also Romantic-Sublime

Term: Picturesque came into use in England in the last decades of the 17^th century to describe paintings that were boldly & vividly executed OxCompArt. From around 1750 the concept of Picturesque or Picturesque was in wide use in Britain & France. Pictures were so described when its elements, wisely chosen & arranged according to the rules of art, produced a pleasing visual effect. However, nothing was to appear purposely arranged, & everything was to seem as if derived from its natural appearance. The picturesque therefore described what was artfully natural, but it also covered what was naturally artful, e.g., an old tree which had become picturesque through accident & time Sheriff pp 83-4.

Cochin’s 1758 Voyage d’Italie is filled with references to scenes described as picturesque because they would make good pictures. In late 18^th century Britain William Gilpin, Uvedale Price & Richard Payne Knight tried to clarify the concept, & the Picturesque was added as a third category to the Sublime & the Beautiful, which can be seen as situated midway or as a synthesis Sheriff p85,TurnerRtoI pp 237-8, L&L, Murrays1959. It was produced by roughness, irregularity & variety & was to be sought in gypsies, beggars, foresters, hovels, old cart horses & mills etc L&L. Perhaps the prime requirement was what Gilpin described as “the power to stimulate imagination” OxCompArt p868.

Influences & Development: The Picturesque movement was rooted in the work of two artists who do not themselves qualify. They were Claude, whose paintings contain many ruins & fanciful features, & also Canaletto. His works cannot be regarded as picturesque because of they are essentially topographical. However, they did point the way to the picturesque because of the nature of Venice itself, because of the colourful activities of the figures they contain, & because of the numerous ceremonies & festival that are depicted Langdon Fig 2, 11, 15, 23, 24-6, 29, 32, 35, 36, 38, 42-3, 48-50, 57-8, 60, 64, 68-9, 84, 90, 102, 106, 108-11, 114 , Levey1959 p71, Paolucci pp 10-11, Pl 30-5, 52-5, 67-70, 89-90, 94. Gilpin’s Essay on Prints, 1768, which was a work on print collecting, contained remarks on picturesque beauty. Between 1768 & 1776 he made tours through Great Britain viewing the picturesque. These were published from 1781 & were illustrated by his own fine aquatints OxCompArt, Klingender1968 p84. The picturesque meant objects that were “proper subjects for painting” & Gilpin never produced a consistent definition. However, he highlighted its characteristics as being rough & rugged, & not neat & smooth; the absence of symmetry, balance, four-squareness, & in general man’s works, including ploughed fields. He believed that youthful charms & industrious mechanics are less picturesque than patriarchal wrinkles, lolling & lazy peasants, shabby beards, gypsies, banditti, tattered soldiers, hovels, barns, quarries & gravel pits that have softened because of time & weather Klingender1968 p85. Price in his Essays on the Picturesque, 1794, argued that when somebody first saw a picture of rough & irregular objects, he would be amazed by their ugliness but would then gradually come to appreciate their variety, light catching & contrasting properties, & the rich & mellow tints produced by decay. Ultimately alerted by painting, he would constantly recognise scenes & objects as intrinsically & objectively picturesque, despite their not being beautiful or sublime Hussey p14. However, Archibald Alison in Essays on the Nature & Principles of Taste, 1790, denied that objects possessed objective & inherent qualities; & believed that all emotions arise through association. Anything might be beautiful if it aroused pleasant & therefore beautiful ideas Hussey p15. A sensibility to natural scenery was due to the working of the human cum divine mind, which gave landscape a spiritual justification Macmillan1990 pp 219-20. Knight in his Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste, 1805, argued that colour as revealed by light possessed objective qualities when perceived abstractly, apart from the object it denoted. Such abstract vision was the painter’s or picturesque point of view; nothing was intrinsically picturesque but many objects when viewed abstractly had picturesque & pictorial beauty. Only abstract emotive qualities had aesthetic value: all other kinds of beauty were gained through association & were non-aesthetic, e.g., those produced by sex or content Hussey pp 16-7. Later there was increasing opposition to picturesque (by Wordsworth, Hegel) but a growing general popularity Honour1979 p110-1. Although the 18^th century is regarded as sober-minded, the age actually relished surprise, fantasy & incongruity. It was civilised enough to be the first century which could truly savour & indulge these emotions Levey1959 p71 . The picturesque has been seen as enabling the squirearchy to avoid finding aspects of country life distressing & threatening L&L

Characteristics: Picaresque paintings are visually stimulating & even piquant. However, they are not emotionally stirring or disturbing. They depict what is attractive rather than what is beautiful. Despite being pitched in a lower key than the sublime or the stunningly beautiful, they can in their own way be powerful.] When Diderot looked at a picturesque painting by Hubert Robert, he was led to imagine that he could enter the picture & move around in the world that was depicted Fried 1980 pp 128-32.

There are a variety of ways in which those who painted the picturesque were able to arouse the interest of the viewer by moving beyond the ordered, commonplace & every day. These included ruins, curiously shaped rocks & trees, stormy seas & shipwrecks, dancing of an informal nature, processions & festivals, incongruous juxtapositions of time & place, bandits, highwaymen, pick pockets, quacks & colourful idlers & rascals, strange animals, etc, etc. Some of these were, in reality, by no means unusual but they were not part of the ordered society, scene & universe which was envisaged by men of science & desired by the bourgeoisie.

It was a feature of the picturesque that, although pictures its paintings were stimulating, they were not truly disturbing or profoundly moving. They impart a frizzante & a thrill but they do not arouse deep emotions, still less terror at the wildness of nature, the wickedness of man, or the destructive power of time, decay & industrial development. We are not, for instance, meant to believe that the shipwreck will actually take place or that, if it has already occurred, anybody will be drowned. The bandits do not appear to be murderous; the rogues are simply idle, & the cheats & pickpockets are merely displaying their cleverness.]

A Caveat: [Although the characteristics of the Picturesque seem clear enough in principle they are difficult to apply in practice. This is because it is sometimes hard to decide whether a particular picture is Picturesque or Sublime. The one shades into the other & some paintings have both picturesque & sublime features. Moreover, artists not only moved from one category to another, but they painted both types at the same time.] For instance, De Loutherbourg produced two somewhat similar views of Snowden in 1786-7 one picturesque & the other sublime Hawes pp 115-6, Wakefield p165. [Pictures that defy neat boundaries are not, of course, confined to the Picturesque but here they seem particularly prevalent . What is important is not to fall into the trap of trying to identify subjects that are of picturesque nature & subjects that are inherently sublime. Volcanoes are a case in point because they may be either. If they are inactive or merely smoking, they may well be just picturesque whereas if they are erupting the scene is probably sublime. The early picturesque period differs from later Romanticism in that the former was often light-hearted and pleasurable as distinct from Romanticism proper. This was always heart felt and intense.

Extent & Links: Because of the way in which paintings are seen through national spectacles, the Picturesque is often viewed as essentially British L&L, OxDicArt. This was not the case . It was a movement that extended to Italy & France, as evident from authoritative sources even if they do not quite say so See Wakefield p165, & Levey1959 pp 96-103 etc. Moreover, there were close links between picturesque painting In Britain & France & Italy. Wright of Derby was strongly influenced by Voltaire’s views of Vesuvius during his Italian tour of 1773-5 Wakefield p163. And there is no doubt that other artists were, like Constable, well aware of the work of Vernet & Loutherbourg Leslie pp 300-1. Indeed, it could hardly be otherwise in view of the long period which he spent in Britain Wakefield p163-5. By about 1850 the Picturesque was being swamped in England by quaint architectural views & anecdotage Hussey p275

Artists: Carlevaris; Collins; de Volaire; Gainsborough (rural scenes); William Gilpin; Guardi; Ibbetson; Longhi, Loutherbourg; George Morland; Hubert Robert; Joseph Vernet; Henry Waleston; Wheatley; Wright of Derby Hussey pp 262, 266-7; Klingender1958 p85

ROMANTICISM: SUBLIME & BEAUTIFUL: (19)

Term & Concept: The terms Romanticism & Romantic Movement are too all-embracing to be useful, as (implicitly) recognised by Robert Rosenblum R&J pp62-3. Hence it is necessary to divide Romanticism into meaningful categories See Romanticism in Section 7. Beauty & the Sublime were linked together by Edmund Burke in his Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful which was a landmark in the development of thought about the concept of Romanticism. He considered that they were antithetical because our most powerful feelings are love & hate producing attraction & repulsion, with a sense of Beauty aroused by attractive objects, & a sense of Sublimity by those repellent due to hugeness, darkness, infinite extension etc Vaughan1978 p33. Infinity fills the mind “with that sort of delightful horror, which is the … truest test of the sublime”. Magnificence was another source of the sublime as produced by a profusion of splendid things, such as the grandeur & disorder of a starry heaven Burke pp 73, 77, See also Burke in Section 4. Hence Burke’s distinction between Beauty & the Sublime is unclear & contradictory. What is evident is that, according to Burke, they both produce powerful emotional feelings of a moving nature. Paintings from the Romantic era that generate, & appear designed to generate a profound emotional response, will be considered as belonging to the Movement now being considered.

Background: In the first century Longinus, who greatly influenced 18^th century writers on taste, distinguished beauty, which may be found in the small, smooth, light & everyday, from the more intense Sublime. This is characterised by an awe that is inspired by vastness, irregularity, obscurity & the superhuman. In 1719 Jonathan Richardson applied the term, hitherto used in literary criticism, to painting describing terror as painterly, as concern for our own safety provides “pleasing ideas”.

Characteristics: Paintings are typically large in order to create visual impact. Sublime paintings often depict catastrophic events whether these be natural calamities, deliberate acts of God, or man-made disasters. Natural scenes of an awe-inspiring variety must also be regarded as sublime but so also must dramatic industrial scenes due to fire & smoke. Serenity is generally unsub lime but must be distinguished from abnormal & preternatural calm which is a feature of sublimity. Here the calm is the stillness of oblivion, death or the infinite, all of which are frightening or troubling. Hence it is necessary to distinguish between the frozen & unearthly Sublime & the comfortable calm of Romantic Classical Realism. In some cases, the boundary line is difficult to draw & opinions will inevitably differ. The American Luminists are, for instance, a borderline group.
Sublime painting is often tinged with pessimism, if only because it is obvious that whatever is being depicted will soon pass away. This is evidently the case where, for instance, the wilderness is being destroyed, & implicit where there is a calm that seems unnatural & cannot last See Hughes1997 p205

A Problem: If calamities are a feature of the Sublime in the era of Romanticism the question arises of how we are to describe them in previous periods, for it is evident that they predate that period. The answer appears to be that prior to Romanticism there was no problem in picturing the sublime because it was taken for granted that the gods of the ancient world & the members of the Christian hierarchy were sublime. It was also taken as given that acts of extreme violence were a commonplace. However, when God had ceased to be a vengeful presence, society had become less violent, & the belief in original sin had waned, the depiction of the Sublime became a more difficult matter. The task was made even more difficult because, once the Sublime had been identified, painters became conscious that its depiction presented a problem. This, in turn, gave rise to a lack of spontaneity & to laboured work, which is an important characteristic of much would-be Sublime painting. Only the greatest masters were, like Turner & Friedrich, able to avoid this trap.

Period: Art historians have often dated the Romantic Movement’s start from Walpole’s Castle of Otranto, 1764. However, this is too late, witness the reaction to the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, Burke’s 1757 Inquiry into the Origins of the Sublime, & Piranesi’s revised & intensified Imaginary Prisons of 1760 Clark1973 pp 45-50. [The Romantic-Sublime lasted until about 1855 in Europe with death of Turner & Danby’. In America it continued longer.]

Background: Despondency, due to frustrated political & scientific hopes, & class conflict in a rapidly changing economy, led to a revived taste for the sublime as in the work John Martin Klingender p120.

Painters:
(a) Europe: James Barry; Calvert; Danby; [Dahl]; Finch; de Loutherbourg; [Friedrich]; Gericault; Giles; Linnell; Martin; Palmer; Piranesi; George Richmond; Hubert Robert; Sherman; Claude-Joseph Vernet; Henry Walter; James Ward; Wright of Derby; Arthur & Frederick Tatham; Turner; TurnerRtoI pp 4, 345, Vaughan1978 pp 35-6.
(b) USA: Bierstadt; Church; Cole; Cropsey; Durand; Gifford; James Hamilton?; [Homer (late)]; Kensett; Moran; Whittredge Turner RtoI p160 See also Romantic-Picturesque

RURAL NATURALISM: (29)

Term: Rural Naturalism appeared in the title of a notable exhibition in 2000 of those described as British Peasant Painters. However, it was made clear that they were part of a larger, mainly French movement JenkinsA pp 24-5. The classic works on the Naturalist grouping in European painting have been written or edited by Professor Gabriel Weisberg. They include paintings of urban & industrial scenes but Professor Kenneth McConkey in his essay Rural Naturalism in Britain identifies rural naturalism as a distinct type of late-19^th century painting Weisberg 1982, Weisberg1992 especially Ch 7. The Movement which is the concern of the present section covers not only rural workers but also an analogous group, namely fishermen & their families, providing of course they were painted in a naturalist style.

Background:
(a) Agricultural Depression: During the late 1870s there was a sudden invasion of Europe by American prairie-wheat due to railway expansion, cheap grain freights to encourage settlement, & a consequent land rush. This coincided with the introduction of the first successful agricultural machinery, the Locke wire binder, which enabled the reaping machine to be worked by one man instead of two. There was also a sudden abundance of cheap ocean-going transport due to improvements in marine engines. As a result, there was a collapse in wheat prices in British Isles though not on the Continent because, with the exception of Belgium, cheap wheat was shut out by tariffs. The difficulties of British agriculture were intensified by bad, wet summers from 1875 to 1879, at a time when low yields were no longer offset by a high price Ensor pp 115-6. Wheat production now ceased to pay on any except the most favourable soils while the number of cattle rose as former wheat land went down to grass [or was devoted to the production of root crops to feed cattle in winter]. The agricultural crisis led to a volume of complaints that had not been heard since the depression following the Napoleonic Wars Court pp203-5. [It would be very remarkable if the British Rural Naturalists had not heard or noticed what was occurring.]
(b) Urbanisation: [In 1850 Britain was a still an almost entirely green land. The built-up area in London was only extended for some seven to ten miles, [& outside of London the textile district & coalfields with their pit villages were the only largish areas of sprawl.] Even Manchester could still be crossed on foot in less than an hour Inwood pp 954-5, Hoppen p72. However, by the time the Rural Naturalists had begun painting in Britain during the mid-1880s suburbanisation was well underway. By around 1870 there was already an extensive rail network linking the South London suburbs, actual [& potential], to the City & West End, & much of North London had been connected to the centre by 1880 Inwood pp 550-2, 958. [Outside London the suburbs were also spreading, although here] it was the steam tram [& the growth of the coal industry] that were the agents of change Hoppen p72. The threat posed by suburbanisation was widely did not go unrecognised. Pressure from local residents & the Commons Preservation Society had by 1871 prevented house building on Hampstead Heath & in Epping Forest, etc, & in 1887, after a fierce battle, Parliament refused permission to construct a railway line from Ambleside to Keswick in the Lake District. Concern for the protection of the countryside crystalised in the foundation of the National Trust in 1895 Inwood pp 668-9, Ensor pp 340-1. [Once again, it would be strange if the Rural Naturalists were not influenced by the climate of opinion] & there is evidence that they & kindred artists lamented the destruction of heritage. Complaint was, for instance, made by Helen Allingham, Stanhope Forbes & Norman Garstin AC p10, F&G p66, Pryke p122.

Characteristics: [The words naturalism & naturalistic have been used to describe paintings of widely different types & periods. The term Rural Naturalism as used here has a precise & restricted meaning. The work of the Rural Naturalists might be said to have begun with Courbet & Millet. However, their paintings differ from later work being discussed here because their figures are generally less natural & alive: they are more posed. Naturalism has the other negative characteristic of not being Impressionism, Social Realism or dealing with subject matter of a big town variety.] Naturalist painters also rejected the dark tonalities of earlier realism, & the new Movement was a reaction against studio work & old-style Realism by those who desired to study humanity in relation to its surroundings Jenkins p32, Weisberg1982 p4, Fox& G pp 14-5. Bastien-Lepage’s Haymakers, 1878, was probably the first undeniable example of the genre Weisberg1992 pp 7, 15. He inspired the Rural Naturalists through his work & his many of his followers had, like him, deep roots in the place where they painted. In their case it was often the artist colonies in rural locations or small, remote towns. Or they painted together en plein air in the countryside See the Glasgow Boys in Section 8. Weisberg1992 pp 108-9, 111, Jenkins Chs 3-6, See the Glasgow Boys in Section 8.

[Naturalism was essentially backward looking because where workers or family members were depicted the occupation involved the age-old but ever less important activities of domestic agriculture or fishing. Where other activities were depicted, they were of a traditional, type such as religious ceremonies, domestic activities & festivities; together with sickness or grief Weisberg1992 pp 19, 27, 29, 33, 41- 3, 74, 79, 104-5, 110, 112, 114, 118-9, 122-3, 128 etc; Fox&G pp 48, 77, 102, 108, 158, 160, 181-2.. Figures were sometimes nude but only in a rural or remote setting as in a painting by Anders Zorn RA1900 p127. [Naturalism involves ordinary people & not those who belong or appear to belong to the upper classes.]

Skies are often overcast & the light is even but not bright, which means that shadows are infrequent. Unlike the Impressionists the Rural Naturalists were not particularly interested in the play of sunlight, although this did not prevent the Newlyn artists from producing notable contra-jour paintings Weisberg1992 pp 132-3. The Rural Naturalists were plain air painters &, like Bastien-Lepage, [would in any case have found it difficult to produce detailed work in ever shifting light] Billcliffe p35.

The paintings of the Rural Naturalists displayed less finish than was then customary. Indeed, their brushwork tended to be broad & forceful, not infrequently due to the use of square ended brushes Jacobs1985 p148. Certain parts of the painting such as the principal figure were however painted in detail whereas backgrounds & other areas were slightly blurred Jenkins pp 38-7.

These backgrounds were of a distinctive type because the picture figures are set against the landscape instead of the sky of which usually only occupies a relatively small area Jenkins pp 37, 39-40, 44-5, 54, 56, 70-1, 74-5, 77, 80-1, 87, 91-3, etc.

A final feature of Rural Naturalism was that the sympathetic intimacy & satisfying completeness with which the figures were depicted. Clausen commented on this when writing about Bastien-Lepage Billclifffe p37. [It is unsurprising that his own work also marked by sympathy & feeling, as are those of the Newlyn artists & produced at Skagen in Denmark. Rural Naturalism was a work of love.]

Specialities: There were at least three:

(i) Paintings by Bastien-Lepage & others of children which dominate the composition in a variety of poses ranging from confrontational to day dreaming day dreaming Jenkins pp 70-1 Weisberg1992 p 149, Bilcliffe pp 96, 151, 170.

(ii) Works that are focused on girls & young women, sometimes seeming to advance out of the painting Jenkins pp 91, 111, 116, 119, 122, 154, 158, Billcliffe p134.

(iii) Paintings in which children & female fieldworkers are or have been engaged on menial tasks such as gathering stones Billcliffe pp 49, 91, 142, 158, Jenkins pp 120, 140, 145 Sometimes it seems evident that the workers are tired & are therefore being viewed with sympathy as in Hop-pickers Returning by Alexander Mann.

Painters:
(a) British Isles: Bourdillon; Bramley; Arnesby Brown; James Charles; Clausen; Crawhall; Dow; Elizabeth & Stanhope Forbes; Fortesque; James ;Guthrie; Arthur Hacker; Herkomer; William Kennedy; La Thangue; Lavery; Osborne; O’Meara; ; Goodhall; Gotch; Guthrie; Fred Hall; Harris; George Henry; Hornel; Langley; Lavery; Macgregor; Alexander Mann; Melville: Paterson; Roche; Rheam; Edward & William Stott; Suthers; Taylor, Tuke; Walston Fox&G; Jenkins; Turner RtoI pp 120-1; Weisberg1992 Ch4, McConkey1989 pp 156
(b) France: Adler; Bastien-Lepage; Beraud; Buland; Caillebotte; Degas; Dagnan-Bouveret; Friant; Geoffrey; Gilbert; Lhermitte; Meunier; Pelez; Raffaelli; Roll Weisberg pp 17, 19, 49-106
(c) Low Countries: Claus; Collin; Dierckx; Douard; Frederic; L’Hecatombe; Larock; Mauve; Meunier; van Leemputten; Pion; van Steydonck; Verstraete Weisberg pp 211-40
(d) Germany: Bokelmann; Holzel; Kampf; Leibl; Liebermann; Mackensen; Menzel; von Uhde Weisberg pp 190-206
(e) Scandinavia: Michael Ancher; Bergh; Birger; Bjerre; Bjorck; Eirbakke; Edelfelt; Gallen-Kallela; Kroyer; Jensen-Hjell; Jarnfelt; Josephson; Pauli; Ring; Slott-Moller; Waleslen; Wentzel; Werenskiold; Anders Zorn Weisberg pp 244-272
(f) Hungary: Bihari; Csok; Ferenczy; Bela Grunwald; Hollosy; Ivanyi; Pataki; Szenvedok Weisberg pp 171-87
(g) USA: Gainer Donoho; Alexander & Birge Harrison; [Winslow Homer]; Walter MacEwen; Gari Melchers [early]; William Norton; Charles Pearce Weisberg1992 Ch 5

RUSSIAN AVANT GARDE: (39)

Term & Concept: [That there was an avant-garde movement in Russia is well established. It spanned the early years of the 20^th century prior to the Revolution and went on at least until the Socialist Realism became the official form of painting.]

Development:

In 1899 the World of Art held its first exhibition in St Petersburg. It was a group of avant-garde artists & writers who had come to regard The Wanderers as backward-looking. The aim was a nationalist revival of Russian art but taking account of contemporary developments in the West. A key role was played by Serge Diaghilev who, assisted by Leon Bakst & Alexander Benois, edited the progressive art journal Mir Iskusstva & was the future promoter of the Ballet Russe for which Avant Garde painters were to engage in extensive design work Leek p91 & See WORLD OF ART / MIR ISKUSSTVA in Section 8. Benois had already painted what was perhaps the first avant-garde work, The King’s Walk, in 1896 Leek p164. The Union of Russian Artists was another contemporaneous society of avant-garde artists & but one of a bewildering number of groupings that came together to exhibit their work See Union of Russian Artists, Blue Rose Group, & Neo-Primitivism, Russian in Section 8. The artists associated with World of Art enjoyed the hospitality & support of Sava Mamontov. His riches were obtained as a result of Russia’s industrial revolution & it was this, along with continuing aristocratic buying, that supported the avant-garde See Russia in Section 10 under Patronage. Between 1870 & 1913 Russian manufacturing output increased nearly tenfold which was as fast or faster than in any other major & now developed nation, including Japan Madison 1969 pp 92,164. [This was the background & context for Russian avant-garde painting & must have contributed to the transformation of Russian art & culture].

The early years after the Revolution were a golden period for the avant-garde. After the Bolsheviks took power the People’s Commissariat for Enlightenment (Izo NarKomPros) was established under the control of the relatively liberal Lunacharsky (1875-1933), the Commissar for Education. Izo which was the art department was headed by the painter David Sheterenberg & contained assorted avant-garde artists including Malevich, Tatllin, Kandinski & Robert Falk. The Wanderers were not included & Sheterenberg discriminated against them in the distribution of art materials RARev p64. The avant-gardists were naive, opinionated divided & intolerant. They were quite prepared to use underhand tactics to overcome their opponents, witness Chagall’s treatment by Malevich, & to use state funding for the advantage of their supporters. They seemed unaware that the Bolsheviks threatened their artistic freedom. Indeed critics & artists, such as Punin & Altman, welcomed state sponsorship & opposed artistic pluralism Bown1991 pp 19-23, Skira p21, Gray pp 246-7.

In 1920 the leading avant-gardists formed the Institute of Artistic Culture (InKhuK). It was chaired by Kandinsky but he soon left, his programme having been voted down as too aesthetic & irrelevant Gray pp 234-5, TurnerEtoPM p219. It was decided that its future role should be in applied & not fine art Bown1991 p30. However, Malevich & the Pevsners argued that art, which was necessarily spiritual, would by becoming useful cease & that artists would no longer constitute a source for new design. Malevich believed that industrial design was necessarily dependent on abstract creation; whereas Tatlin & the ardently Communist Rodchenko insisted that the artist must become a technician, using tools materials of modern production in service of the proletariat Gray pp 246-7. Nevertheless, there was general agreement in the avant-garde that studio painting was outmoded & useless, a position that was adopted by the Institute in November 1921, when it endorsed Constructivism OxDicMod p432, TurnerEtoPM p219.

Lenin admired the Wanderers for conveying Russian life & favoured conventional & traditional art. Above all he believed in patriots, i.e., submission to Communist Party decisions Lebedev p19, Bown1991 pp 23-5. Following the Revolution there was a vigorous Proletcult movement which aimed to create a proletarian art & ran a network of art studios. The chief theorist was the dissident Marxist Bogdanov who thought there were three independent roads to Socialism, economic, political, cut rural. Hence Proleptical should be independent of the Communist Party Gray pp 244-5, Bown1999 p20; However, in 1920 Lenin ordered the Proletcult movement to submit to the Commissariat for Enlightenment & said that workers were being perverted by absurd Futurism. This signalled the emergence of a party line hostile to the avant-garde & it implicitly favoured Realism Bown1991 p27, Gray pp 244-5.

The dissenting avant-gardists left Moscow (Kandinsky, Malevich, Filonov) and/or went abroad (Kandinsky, Gabo, Pevsner, Chagall). Hence painting in Moscow was now dominated by figurative artists who became the most important grouping. Here they were assisted by Lenin’s New Economic Policy (1921), which led to the reappearance of private patrons who wanted conventional works Bown1991 pp 30-1, Gray p245.

Characteristics: Avant-gardists regarded themselves as innovators & hence it is not to be expected that the Russian movement would have clear cut features. However, their work does have at least one crucial characteristic: it is bold & self-confidant both in its design & in colouring which if usually strong. The boundaries of figures & objects are almost always clearly delineated. Nevertheless, these works cannot be described as realistic: they are all highly stylised Leek pp 97-9, 107, 140-141, 144, 146-50, 154-61, 163, Petrova pp 128-9, 178-9, RARev pp 120-1, 129, 132-3, 135, 162-72, 188-91, 194-5, 214-5, 274-6, 278-9, 281-2, 285-6. It might be thought that because they are avant-garde the pictures would draw exclusively on the latest artistic trends & on modern city life. However, many of these works are inspired by icons & by folk art. They are paintings of traditional festivities & old-world towns, & by scenes from a past aristocratic age & from Russian history Leek pp 135, 139, 147, 150, 155-6, 164-9, Petrova pp 128-9, 178-9, RARev pp 210-11, 217-9. Works of the latter type have been dubbed “retrospectives” Leek pp 164-5. [Their cessation was one of the most important developments which the Revolution brought about. No avant-garde works are fully abstract, though this is partly a matter of definition because such works have, along with Impressionist landscapes, been regarded as belonging to different movements. A final characteristic of the painters in the Russian avant-garde movement is that they seldom remained in it for very long but, like Goncharavo & Malevich, moved in & out].

Painters: Abram Arkhipov, Robert Falk, Alexander Benois, Pavel Filonov, Pavel Kaznetsov, Pyotr Konchalovsky, Nikolai Krymov, Alexander Kuprin, Boris Kustodiev, Mikhail Larionov, Yevgeny Lanceray, Ilya Mashkov, Natalia Goncharova, [Petrov-Vodkin], Martiros Saryan, Aleksandr Shevchenko, Sergei Sudeikis, Vladimir Tatlin, Konstantin Yuon Leek pp 97-9, 107, 135, 140-1, 144, 146-50, 155-6, 160-7, Petrova pp 128-9, 178-9, 186, 188-9 , Turner EtoPM p263

RUSSIAN CRITICAL REALISM: (30)

Term: It is authoritatively recognised that Realism of a socially critical type was painted by The Wanderers, an exhibition society active between 1870 & 1923 Turner EtoPM p362, Leek p39. However, by no means all of their work was of a critical nature & the movement under discussion excludes much of its landscape painting which was of a lyrical & celebratory type. This & other non-critical work is to found in the movement entitled Impressionism, Russian Empire.

Background: Russian Critical Realism flourished at a time when Hersen, Turgenev, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy & Chernyshshevsky were awakening social consciences. The latter in the Aesthetic Relations of Art & Reality, 1855, stressed artists’ moral & social accountability & called for art that was not limited to beauty but embraced all reality Elliott p8. This was a time when, following Herzen, intellectuals were arguing that the people (narod) required political education.

In 1873-4 hundreds of Narodnik or Populists went into the villages & preached revolutionary ideas. This led to arrests, trials, punishment, the assassination of the police chief of St Petersburg in 1878, & the formation of the first revolutionary group in Russia, Zemlya I volya. It was disciplined & conspiratorial so as to be less visible than the Narodnik. In 1876 small groups went to live among the people & agitate. They did not have much success among the peasants but much more among those who worked in the new factories. There were a series of assassinations, brutal reprisals by the authorities, & the formation of a terrorist group Navodaya volya (People’s will) which in 1881 succeeded in assassinating the reformist Tsar Alexander II S-W1967 pp 421-9. Under Alexander III terrorism more or less ceased.

Development: From 1878 beginning with Yaroshenko’s Stoker the subject matter was extended from the country to industry Lebedev Pl 109.

Characteristic: Genre paintings of the life, labour & struggle of the peasantry & industrial working class. There are also some histories paintings & these include works show the persecution of dissidents, as in Surikov’s the Boyarina Morozova, 1887 Leek pp 344-5. The works of the critical realists are powerful but not subtle. Their social & political meaning is readily apparent: poverty is rife, labour is generally harsh, & workers & wives appear to be unhappy except at the occasional festivity or at religious rites Leek pp 73, 78, Lebedev Pl 1, 3, 14-5, 18, 22-3, 33-4, 36, 45-7, 51-2, 56, 64, 66, 81, 96, 105, 110, but See Pl 16, 34, 48, 58, 80. They are painted in muted colour harmonies, without high finish & employing brushwork that is fairly free but without the dabbing of the French Impressionists TurnerEtoPM p362, Lebedev plates for relevant painters.

Painters: Abram Arkhipov, Sergei Ivanov, Nikolai Kasatkin, Sergei Korovin, Vladimir Makovsky, Nikolai Orlov, Konstantin Savitsky, Vasily Surikov, Nikolai Yaroshenko Lebedev Pl 1, 3, 15-8, 22, 44-7, 56, 81-3, 96-7, 100, 109

SOCIAL REALISM 1910-1960: (44)

Term: Social Realism is a standard term See Social Realism Overview in Section 5. Here it embraces genre paintings & townscapes which depict the lives & activities of those who do not belong to the higher reaches of society. Although the artists may well have had left wing sympathies, these paintings can be described as realist because of their impartial nature & the absence of an overt political message. Their works are not Political Art/Tendenzkunst which has been treated as a separate Movement. The American Ashcan artists have not been included because of their distinctive characteristics & have been regarded as a separate Movement.

Characteristics: They are modern realist paintings in style & content, not obviously inspired by the great masters or depicting a past world. Such works belong in the Movements entitled The Great Tradition & Looking Backwards. Another negative characteristic is the absence of marked styalisation of the type inspired by Cubism. These works have been assigned to Post-Cubism. Moreover they are not works which are strange or subtly disturbing & to be regarded as Magic Realism.

Specialties: These include leisure time pursuits of all types but often out of doors. They are what has been termed A Day in the Sun & might often be described as having fun, albeit of a commonplace type Wilcox. [Another speciality, although it is confined to Sickert, are female nudes in sleazy bedrooms.]

Influences: [Social Realism was partly inspired by Degas. Here Sickert was the obvious link] &, although the Movement did not begin in earnest until about 1910, his music hall scenes of the late 1880s, & during the1890s, foreshadow its advent Shone1988 pp 14, 16-19.

Background:

(i) Urban: During the 1930s the pendulum began swinging away from Modernism. Young politically committed writers & poets criticised the previous generation’s elitism, sterile formalism, & failure to address important issues & communicate to a wider audience. There was a call for greater Realism (Spender, MacNiece, Day Lewis, Orwell), as well as the refurbishment of the traditional novel (Orwell, Isherwood, Graham Green & Evelyn Waugh). After 1945 there was a new Modernist swing, with an emphasis on individual sensibility rather than collective experience. James came back into fashion & his successor Charles Morgan aroused interest. There was also verse drama (Eliot & Fry) & Dylan Thomas’ modernist poetry Lodge1991 p8

(ii) Rural: The countryside was now used for mass recreation as never before. The Clarion Clubs & other groups began organising country rambles in the1880s & in the early days of cycling the fictional Mr Hoopdriver escaped from the Drapery Emporium into the countywide in The Wheels of Chance, 1896, by H. G. Wells p vii, 3. Nevertheless it was not until the1930s that cycling, rambling & the country picnic became common leisure activities. [This was due to increasing affluence outside the depressed areas], to the imaginative publicity of the public transport companies, to the Youth Hostels Association which was founded in 1930, & to the acquisition of motor cars by the middle-middle class Wilcox pp 60, 62, 74. In 1920 there under 200, 000 private cars were registered, ten years later there were over a million, & before the outbreak of war nearly two million Taylor1977 p302. Sunbathing was another important development. This took place at the new outdoor & government-backed swimming pools constructed during the 1930s. The programmer was launched in 1929 by George Lansbury, the Labour Minister of Works. Leisure activities of widely diverse types also took place at the seaside where summer holidays became increasingly common. In the 1920s some 1½ million wage-earners had a holiday with pay but by 1938, prior to statutory entitlement, there were three million Mowat p501. All of these leisure pursuits were reflected in painting & these sometimes took a dramatic form. This owed something to Leni Riefensthal’s unexpected camera shots Wilcox pp 33, 43

Painters with groups in date order:

(a] Camden Town & After: Sickert, Gilman, Gore, Bevan

(b) American Social Realists of the 1930s & 40s: Benton; Curry; Evergood; [Regianld Marsh], Gropper; [Norman Rockwell]; Moses & Raphael Soyer; Ben Shahn; [Andrew Wyeth] Hughes1997 pp 447, 507-9, ShapiroD p145

(c) A Day in the Sun: Hilda Carline, Harry Epworth Allen, Bernard Fleetwood-Walker, Lancelot Glasson, Percy Shakespeare, Harold Williamson Wilcox2006

(d) Back to Reality: Graham Bell; Boswell; Carline; Coldstream; Fitton; Gowing; Paul Hogarth; James Holland; Passmore; Peri; Claude Rogers; Cliff Rowe; Stokes; Weight TurnerEtoPM p57; Spalding1986 pp 118-125 [Eliminate the AIA cum political artists]

(d)The Kitchen Sink School: Clive Branson; Bratby; Derrick Greaves; Edward Middleditch; Jack Smith; Alfred Daniels; Herman; Peter de Francia; Harry Baines; Morley Bury; Claude Rogers; Berger; Peter Blake; Brian Bradshaw; Prunella Clough (early); Peter Coker; Duxbury; Eardley; Derek Hill; Hoyland; Malcolm Hughes; Helen Lessore; Peri; Keith Vaughan; Anthony Wishaw Spalding1986 pp 122-4, 157-9, F50s

[These lists need checking]

SOURCES

Schwarcz, Lilia The Emperor’s Beard

SOVIET IMPRESSIONISM: (49)

Term: Soviet Impressionism was recognised as an important movement in Russia when it was being painted & subsequently by art historians Bown1989 pp 208-17.

Development & Background: Landscapes of an Impressionist type had been painted during the pre-Revoloution period See impressionism, Russian Empire. However, with the exception of Igor Grabar & Vasili Baksheev almost no pure & Impressionist landacapes appear to have been painted until the late 1930s & the advent of the Moscow landscapists. Although open to criticism , they possessed the formal values required at that time & provided an escape from Socialist Realism RARev, Bown1991 pp 116, 155-6. Impressionistic townscapes of Moscow were painted by Antonina Sofronova who exhibited with the Group of 13 graphic artists in 1931 Bown1991 pp 42-3, Wikip.

Once Socialist Realism had become the established dogma all those influenced by Modernism who did not paint in the favoured style were at risk of being denounced as Formalists. They were castigated by Osip Beskin in his book Formalism in Painting, 1933. He was the head critic of MOSSKh, the Moscow section of the Union of Soviet Artists Bown1991 pp 118-9, 238. However, Manet & the Impressionists were not singled out for criticism like Cezanne & the Post-Impressionists Swanson pp 11, 71. At the end of the 1930s there was a debate between those who, like Beskin & the Moscow artists, favoured French Impressionism & were concerned with conveying atmosphere & natural light, & the Leningrad painters who had been educated by Isaak Brodski & at the Academy. Beskin even published an article in a journal he edited which praised Cezanne. The debate ended in 1940 when Beskin was fired presumably by Stalin Skira p58., Bown1991 p137. During the war landscape returned to favour with a major exhibition Landscape of Our Motherland in Moscow, & the landscapist Vasili Baksheev received Stalin prize Bown1991 pp155-6.

After the war there was a chauvinist & anti-Semite campaign against Cosmopolitainism which meant anthing foreign. This was headed by Aleksandr Gerasimov & the Academy of Arts. Beskin was expelled from the Moscow Union of Soviet Artists (MSSKh). His failure to denounce Impressionism in 1939, & its endorsement in 1946, were held against him Bown1991 pp 207-9, 236. Impressionism, branded as Formalism, was criticised for lacking academic finish & condemned because its preoccupation with visual sensation was a diversion from thematic art. Gerasimov & Voroshilov waged a brutal war against Impressionism & after visiting the Museum of New Western Art in 1948 they had it closed. Tatyana Yasblonska’s Before the Start, 1947, was criticised as Impressionist, she recanted & painted Corn, 1949, & then received a Stalin prize. Even Sergei Gerasimov lost his post as director of the Moscow State Art Institute, & together with Deineka & Korin came under attack Bown1991 pp 213-7.

Nevertheless even during the early post-war period when Andrei Zhdanov was in charge of artistic policy –the Zhdanovshchina era- Impressionist works continued to be painted. This is shown by Tomato Picking by Zinaida Kovalevskya in 1949, In a Country Garden by Antonina Sofronova in 1950, & Evening by Sergei Gerasimov in 1950. [It is probably significant that] all these works are in private collections Bown1989 p18, Swanson pp 20-23. [After Stalin’s death & the coming of the Khruschev thaw] Impressionmism flourished See Swanson

Characteristics: Works are painted in a broad brush & gestral manner as opposed to the smooth, more highly finished & low keyed style of Soviet Academic Realism Swanson Swanson p1 They are overwhelmingly happy & optimistic paintings. If the scene is outside the sun is typicalluy shining or unless it is an evening scene it is at least a bright day. Those depicted are sometimes seriouis but they rarely look unhappy & the proportion who are smiling or laughing is remarkably high Swanson. In Swanson’s book there are only four paintings in which a person may be unhappy, depressed or worried out of the 70 or so works that contain figures Swanson pp 98, 118, 120. 134. Some paintings depict women who work in what are or used to be regarded as male occupations Swanson pp x, 18, 52, 118, 127, 139, 187. Pictures celebrating Soviet achievements are frequent. Some of the latter deal with the [disasterous] move into the virgin lands Swanson pp 42, 44-5, 47-9, 51-2. That the Impressionist works are almost always of an optimistic & joyous type is scarcely surprising. Many were painted prior to the advent of the Severe Style which only started around 1957. With the political thaw which Kruschev initiated it then became possible for artists to dispense wiith the obligatory optimism of Stalanist art Bown1989, Skira p99.

Painters: Mikhail Anikeev, Vasily Arapov, Vasili Baksheev, Nikolai Barchenkov, Alexi Belykh, Maks Birshtein, Aleksandr Bubnov, Robert Falk, Sergiei Gerasimov, Sergei Grigorev, Aleksandr Gritsai, Zinaida Kovalevskaya, Nikolai Krymov, Alexandr Kuprin, Pavel Markov, Aleksandr Mororoz, Andrei Myinikov, Arkadi Plastov, Nikolai Romadin, Antonina Sofronova, Anatoli Vysotski, Tatyana Yablonskaya Bown1991 pp 42-3, 116, 155-7, 161, 192, 194-6, 202, 212-3, 219, Skira p67, Swanson pp 81, ie all those particularly praised &/or with two or more images [Checked to Belykh].

SOVIET SOCIALIST REALISM: (48)

Term & Concept: That Socialist Realism was an important movement in Russian art can scarcely be doubted. [The only issue is when it began.] Its firat official use appears to have been in 1932 Turner EtoPM pp 334-6. However, paintings that glorified the regime –the essential feature of the movement- began to be painted soon after the Revolution See below. [To allow for these the term Socialist Realism has been prefaced by the worrd Soviet.]

Development: A leading feature of Soviet Academic & Classical Realism was suport for & celebration of the new regime. This began almost immedaitely with the idolisation of Lenin as the great leader in Isaak Brodsky’s Vladirmir Lenin & a Demonstration , 1919 RARev p64. Other early key paintings are The Bolshevik by Boris Kustodiev,1920, his Demonstration on Uritsky Square on the Day of the Opening of the Second Comintern Congress in July 1920, 1921, & Brodsky’s Ceremonial Opening of the Second Congress of the Third International, 1924. All these paintings contain crowds & symbolic red flags. RARev pp 58-9, 64, Skira pp 24, 26. Another notable work was Transport is Being Laid, 1924, by Boris Yakovlev. This inspired a whole new genre devoted to Soviet industrial striving Bown1991 p33. There were also works celebrating the Communist heroes of the past such as Brodski’s The Shooting of the 26 Baku Commissars,1925, & propaganda paintings such as Boris Ioganson’s A Soviet Court, 1928, to promote collectivisation Bown1991 pp52-3. From around this time & throughout the 1930s there were numerous works depicting the achievements & joys real or supposed of Socailism incldung the New Soviet woman in jobs prviously occupied by men, the Stakhanovite movement & the new Moscow that was being constructed Bown1991 pp 47, 105-8, 112-4. The Stankhanovites had therir counterpart in painting in the form of Brigade Painting: the execution of huge works at speed by a team of artists. This was how a vast mural was produced for the Russian pavillion at the 1939 international exhibition in New York. In 1949 Efanov & four others painted Leading People of Moscow in the Kremlin after which the method became commonplace. Brigade works were sometimes bland but this was not always the case Bown1991 pp 82, 182, 199-200.

Realists mostly belonged to the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia 1922, or AKhRR, the largest & most influential group of painters. It continued the tradition of engaged art established by the Wanderers who held their last exhibition in the following year. The Assocaiation’s slogan was heroic realism. AKhRR embraced Lenin’s principle of partiinost & good relations were established with the Red Army. It was hostile to the avant-garde which it accused of discrediting the Revolution Bown1991 pp 32-3.

Characteristics: Rich colouring unless the subject demands otherwise, clear composition with linear boundaries & often broad areas of almost unmodualted paint, crowd scenes out of doors & Communist gatherings in halls, the glorification of Lenin, Stalin & Marshal Zukov, & grand works celebrating historic episodes of Communist bravery, & as we have seen looking forward to a the new society RARev pp 64-5, 67, 80, 88-9, Skira pp 26, 29, 61-64, 74, 76, 79, Bown1991 pp 47-9.

Painters: Pyotr Bolousov, Isaak Brodski, [Aleksandr Deneka], Boris Iaganson, [Kustodiev], [Vasili Efanov], Alexander Laktionev, Dimitri Nalbandyan, Boris Scherbakov, Sokolov-Skalia, Vasili Yakovlev [Yuon} Swanson p17 Primenov, Shegal?

SURREALISM: (52)

Term: It was coined in 1917 by Appollinaire for his own play & ballet Parade by Sartie, Cocteau, Picasso. He ppears to have meant expression which passed beyond realistic effects with a strong element of surprise through unexpected juztapositions, especially those not resulting from conscious deliberationTurnerEtoPM p374. [The term embraces both the wider movement & the narrower grouping in Paris led by Andre Breton.] Belonging to the latter involved attending frequent cafe meetings & sessions in Breton’s apartment, contributing to Surrealism reviews, participating in its group exhibitions, [& not falling out with him] Ades p65

Background: Surrealist techniques were anticipated by the Dadaists when they let torn pieces drop & made spontaneous free-flowing ink drawings. What the Surrealists did was to formulate rules R&S p114

Inspirations: These included (a) visionary artists particularly Bosch & Moreau, but also Ucello, Caron, Van Gogh etc; (b) primitive art; & (c) paitings by mediums & the mentally sick, especially Adolph Wolfli. However Redon, who was considered insipid, was not included, & it is wrong to believe that the Surrealists admired all masters of fantasy. They rejected fantasy which was not motivated by an inner need Alexandrian Ch1

Foundation: In 1922 Dada more or less collapsed OxDicMod. Perceiving a deep crisis in European culture, the Surrealists, wanted a thorough revision of values based on Freudian psychology & Marxist ideology. Most of the original core members were poets who had participated in the Parisian Dada & contributed to the periodical Litterature which was edited by Andre Breton, Louis Aragon & Phillipe Soupault TurnerEtoPm pp 373-4. Breton’s Manifeste du Surrealisme of 1924 was hostile to Realism in life & literature. It was a hymn to imagination, childish playfulness, & the marvellous inspired by the symbolism of dreams & as revealed by psychoanalysis Alexandrian p48. Surrealism was defined as pure “psychic automatism” i.e. “Thought expressed in the absence of any control by reason, & outside all moral & aesthetic considerations”. However Breton (in his later Introduction to the Discourse on the Paucity of Reality, 1924) hoped for “the future … resolution of dream & reality…into a kind of absolute reality”. This meant an expansion of our mental boundaries to include areas normally excluded. Dali however did not want such a resolution but the preservation of Irrationality together with his own neurotic complex Aides pp 98-9. The manifesto was followed up until 1929 by the new periodical La Revolution Surrealiste under Breton’s guidance TurnerEtoPM pp 374-5, Aides p65. In 1941 Breton went to America where he formed a group of expatriate Surrealists. This had an important influence on Abstract-Expressionism. Breton went back to Paris & to the leadership of the movement in 1946, but it was no longer a central force OxDicMod

Surrealist Painting: The only significant artists among original circle were Ernst, Man Ray & Hans Arp TurnerEto PM p374. Early on it was doubted whether Surrealist painting was possible but Breton helps organise first somewhat unrepresentative Surrealism exhibition in 1925 (Chirico, Klee, Arp, Ernst, Ray, Miro, Picasso, Royal) & in article in Le Surrealisme et la Peinture endorsed painting as a useful tool, though he never believing it. or poetry, was an aesthetic end OxDicMod, Alexandrian pp 52-3

Pathways to Psychic Automatism:

These included:

(a) Spiritualistic mediums under self-induced hypnotic states, in which they could speak, draw & answer (as described by Breton in Entree des Mediums).

(b) Freudian psychoanalytic techniques; these having been inspired by Breton’s experience as a medical orderly dealing with shell-shock victims TurnerEtoPm pp 374-5;

(c) Automatic writing as discussed in Les Champs Magnetiques by Breton & Soupalt, 1920, which meant rapidly writing down all thoughts without revision or control during a period of mental detachment.

(d) Games, particularly le Cadavre Exquis in which drawings & sentences were jointly composed but without participants knowing other participants’ contributions [as in heads bodies & legs] Alexandrian pp 47, 50-1.

(e) Collages & then paintings of randomly associated images, as in Ernst’ paintings from 1921.

(f) Frottage which was devised by Ernst in 1925, in which a rubbed image, originally of grained floorboards, suggested a scene & objects Alexandrian pp 62-5.

(g) In 1927 Masson began making pictures by scattering sand over glued canvas, & then added a flashing brushstroke Alexandrian pp 67-9;

(h) Decalcomania from around 1935 in which colour splashes on paper were covered with another sheet & then rubbed gently OxDicMod.

(i) Oscillation was invented by Ernst. Here a pierced paint can was swung on string over a canvas on the ground Alexandrian p164.

Iconography: Strange animals; assemblages of disparate objects & shapes; works in which realistic elements are combined in an unrealistic manner; distorted, humanoid figures; faces in which the features are objects; & female nudes in strange places; & Magrite’s puzzle paintings Alexandrian pp 80, 82-6, 93, 98-9, 101, 113-4, 124-5, 128, 130, 132, 133, 136. [The only common feature of Surrealist painting is its bizarre subject matter. Although it is often macabre, it is rarely disturbing. Nor does it have much emotional impact or even provide memorable images if only because they are so complex. In a curious sense is intellectual art &, in contrast to Magic Realism, the pictures do not suggest that there is anything below the surface.] [[This is a provisional verdict. I need to have another look at Surrealist works]]

Politics: In 1925 France’s Moroccan war condemned & there was a dialogue with the Marxist periodical Clarte. There was a dispute in which Breton declared his inability to see why Surrealism experiments should not continue until the revolution; but he & others joined the French Communist Party in 1927 to underline his commitment TurnerEtoPM p357. In 1929 there was a bitter split over Marxism & the departure of Paul Masson, & also Bataille who was a critic & hitherto a key Surrealist OxDicMod. In 1929 a second manifesto by Breton condemned those unwilling to commit to collective political action, & opposing patriotism, the family, religion & art with any kind of practical aim. He called for a system of taunts & provocations to keep the public away from Surrealism art. In 1930 Breton offered full support to Moscow but the group had a growing admiration for Trotsky. In 1933 Breton etc were expelled from the Communist Party for denying the possibility of proletarian literature under capitalism Alexandrian p95, Aides p109, TurnerEtoP p379. Breton founded the Federation de l’Art Revolutionnaire with Trotsky & Rivera in 1939 TurnerEtoPM p379. In 1929 Dali had coined the Surrealist movement, but was later expelled because of his support for Franco & because his style had become more traditional OxDicMod, Aides p65. Surrealism resembled the Catholic Church: it had dogmas, baptisms, excommunications, numerous Virgin Marys, & a demanding & touchy Pope Hughes1991 p212.

Legacy: Abstract Expressionism was rooted in Surrealism & assemblage & Pop art reached back to Dada Lucie-S1975 p11

Painters: Arp; Belmer; Brauner; Calder; Leonora Carrington; De Chirico; Dali; Delvaux; Dominguez; Duchamp; Ernst; Freddie; Giacometti; Gorky; Kiesler; Lam; Magritte; Malkine; Masson; Matta; Miro; Picabia; Savino; Svanberg; Tanguy; Tanning; Toyen; Trouille Alexandrian pp 234-42 [This list is provisional]

Verdict: Surrealism resembled the Catholic Church: it had dogmas, baptisms, excommunications, numerous Virgin Marys, & a demanding & touchy Pope Hughes1991 p212. [With only a few exceptions it was an example of junk in & junk out!!]

Legacy: Abstract Expressionism was rooted in Surrealism & assemblage & Pop art reached back to Dada Lucie-S1975 p11

SYMBOLISM: (38)

Term: In 1886 it was first identified as a literary movement by the poet Jean Moreas in his Symbolist Manifesto. For painting the Symbolist critic Albert Aurier gave the clearest explantion in the Mercure de France. He said it should be:

(i] Ideative with the sole aim of expressing an Idea;

(ii} Symnbolist since signs & forms would be employed;

(iii) Synthetic they should be generally comprehensible;

(iv) Subjective because perception by the viewer was all important; (v) Decorative because Decoration would then be achieved. He decalred that, “Myopic copies of social anecdotes, imbicile imitation of the warts of nature, flat observations, optical illusions, the glory of being as faithfully & boringly exact as a daguerrotype no longer satisfy any painter…worthy of the name” TurnerRtoI p346, Lucie- S1972 pp 54, 59, Jalard pp147 pp 147-8.

Background I, General:

(a) Catholocism: In 1870 there was a Vatican Council & Papal infallibility was declased. During the later 19^th century there was a Catholic revival that was almost as intense as the Counter Reformation. It occured in most European countries but was particularly intense in France which had been humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War & embittered by the massacre of priests during the Commune. There were new cults of Bernadette of Lourdes, Joan of Arcadia, & the Sacred Heart. In 1848 there were about 3000 French monks but 37000 in 1901. The monastic orders were better educated than parish priests & monasteries became cultural centes. One, though in Germany, was at Beuron where in 1890s monks evolved a unique hieratic art which rejected perspective. Jan Verkade a former Gauguin follower joined Denvir pp 111-2;

(b) Sexual: Around 1870 female sexuality was rediscovered & it was revealed that girls masturbated, eg by Nicholas Cooke who in Saton in Society drew on French research and was particularly worried about female boarding schools Dijkstra pp 64-6. Syphilis became a major public health concern WoodG p86.

(c) Anti-Materialism etc: There was a reaction against moralism, rationalism, naturaslism & the materialism of 19^th century science. The symbolists believed there were instead spiritual paths to understanding via intuition, imagination, dreams, visions, hypnotism, drugs, theosophy etc Lucie-S1972, p54, TurnerRtoI p346.

(d) Music: Its evocative potrential was particularly admired by Symbolists. Wagner was especilly admired because of his desire to create a single syaesthetic experince that provided an ecstatic, mystical,subjective revelation TurnerRtoI p348

Background II: Symbolism Literary: Symbolism in literature & art were initially distinct. However, when literary Symbolism became a self-conscious movement there was a search for artists who shared their approach. Huysmans discovered Moreau & Redon who feature in his 1884 novel A Rebours (Against Nature) & Gauguin was taken up after 1889 Lucie-S1972 p51. Literary Symbolism was closely associated with the concept of Decadence presented in A Rebours & in his next novel La-bas (Down There). Here he explored fashionable Satanism which Huysmans identified as “the spirituality of lust”. Romantics had been obsessed with death & suffering, & the flawed but somehow superior hero, but Decadence rejected the idea of progress, spiritual or material. The preoccupation with the occult was diaplayed in the 1884 novel Le Vice Supreme by the Symbolist Peledan Lucie-S1972 pp 51-52, 109-10, 174, GibsonM p27.

The Symbolist movement had an air of snobbish ivory tower exclusiveness & dandyism. It comprised those privileged with occult knowledge & the ability to comprehend obscure poetry. The poet Mallarme said, “for heaven’s sake do not give them [the masses] our poetry to spoil” Lucie-S1972 pp 52-4. Malarme’s Symbolist verse was characterised by deliberate ambiguity, hermeticism & synthesis, which meant a combination of elements to produce a separate & self-sufficient reality. Art was regared as a parallel world. Clarity in poetry destroys its enjoyment, which consist of suggestion & piecemeal discovery. Malarme was not only the leading literary Symbolist but gave Tuesday receptions attended by anybody who was anything in Symbolism Lucie-S1972 pp 54-7.

Meaning: It was not a style or a particular range of subjects, [though there were certainly Symbolism favourites], but the work of artists who saw themselvs as poetic visionary communicators, making the invisible visble, & expressing the inexpressible, whether through subject matter or decorative means with shapes, colours or materials. They believed, as Maurice Denis explained, that every human feeling or thought had a purely visual equivalent & a corresponding beauty. Art was to be purified through the abandonment of perspective & tonal modelling, & the adoption of flat design & colour L&L,Turner RtoI p348, WalkerAG p145. Just as Symbolist poets saw a close correspondence between the sound & rythm of the words they employed, so Symbolism painters thought colour & line could in themselves express ideas OxDicArt. Whereas Romantics regard nature as godly, Symbolists see it, to quote Huysmans, as a “monotonous storehouse of meadows & trees…a banal purveyor of seascapes and mountains” GibsonM pp 23-4

Period & Location: Symbolism flourished between about 1885 &1910 OxDicMod. It was primarily located in industial areas & places that were predominantly Catholic. The Industrial revolution led to a conflict between traditional symbolic representations prevalent in Catholic societies and the new values for which Protestant countries were better prepared GibsonM pp 7, 12. Scandinavia was on the fringe of the Symbolism world because its austere religion had no use for decadent fantasy GibsonM p143

Development: In 1864 Gustave Moreau’s Oedipus & Sphinx was aclaimed at the Salon, & although his work met with criticim in 1869, his Salome Dancing Before Herod was admired by Huysmans & many other critics when exhibiteded in 1876 GibsonM p238. By 1883 Puvis de Chavannes, the other great pioneer, was painting works which like The Dream are clearly Symbolist TurnerMtoC p344. The International Exhibition at the Viennese Secession in 1904 -at which works by Hodler, Munch. & Gallen-Kallela were shown- marked the climax of the Symbolist movement Hamilton1967 p78.

Salon de la Rose + Croix: It was founded in 1892 by Sar Merodack Josephin Peledan (1859-1918) who was a novelist, poet, journalist, entrepreneur & the leader of a quasi-Catholic revivalist group: the Rosicrucians (Rose+Croix). Annual exhibitions were held at Durand Ruel’s during 1892-7 where many Symbolists appeared (Bernard; Delville, Hodler, Khnopff, Mellery, Schwabe, Toorop, but not Denis or Puvis de Chavannes) It was finaced by a dilettante painter Comte Antoine de la Rochfoucauld. In 1891 Peladan, Rochfoucauld & the poet Saint-Poland Roux promulgated The Commandments of the Aesthetic Rose+Croix. They proscribed modern life paintings, landscapes & seascapes but welcomen work based on legend, myth, dreams which would promote mystic ecstasy & the Catholic ideal Denvir p63, GibsonM pp 55-59.

Les XX. This avant-garde Belgium exhibition society, 1883-93, was another body that featured Symbollist paintinga. It was founded by Ensor, Khnopff etc, & Symbolists & others were invited to exhibit Grove32 pp 590-1

Politics: Many Symbolists had Anarchist sympathies. Anachists wanted to tear down in order to make individuals independent & Symbolists wanted individualist creativityTurnerRtoI p349

Specialities: Paintings of death & disease; sin & erotic perversity, eg the erotic Salome who embodied dance, desire, death & dismemberment, which were contemporary preoccupations. She was the ultimate femme fatal OxDicMod, WoodG p78;. Androgyne was the combination [& synthesis] of male & female characteristicsTurnerRtoI p348

Characteristics:

(a) Period/Place: [Pictures were seldom firmly located in the modern world & rarely depict any credible or identifiable historic period. They often, as in Gauguin’s works, depict sociities that are dead or dyings;

(b) Activities: Nobody is at work & very few are engaged in normal weekday activities such as eating & drinking, conversing or playing;

(c) Subject Matter: This is of the type met with in dreams, visionary states, fairy stories, myths, legends etc. It included

(i) a rich assortment of monsters, angels. devils, ghosts, sphinxes, skeletons etc,

(ii) figures that are frequently asleep, isolated & alone or, if they are together with others, are not ineracting or who appear ill at ease, except where they are ill treating others.

(d) Movement: Activity of any type is infrequent. Figures are usually posed & statuesque which often produces an erie calm; though, here again, with the exception of those engaged in cruel or hostile behaviour GibsonM & Lucie-S1972 Pls but excluding precursors, Pre-Raphaelites, Art Nouveau, Post-Symbolists, & Russians who were not primarily Symbolists.

(e) Evil: This is often manifest (Klinger, Kubin, Rops, Stuck) with women & femme fatales playing a leading role Lucie-S1972 p157

(f) Style: It varied greatly from a love of exotic detail to an almost primitive simplicity, & from firm outlines to misty softness OxDicMod

Painters: Alexander;; Bocklin; Brull-Vinolas; Cadorin; Carriere; Carro; Ciurlionis;; da Volpedo; de Feure; de Nuncques; Egedius; Enckell; Frederic; Hawkins; Hodler; Holst; Josephson; Kallela; Keller; Khnopff; Klimt; Klinger; Kubin; Kupka; Lacombe; Levy-Djurmer; Le Sidaner; Maillol; Malczewski; Martini; Masek; Maurin; Maxence; Mehoffer; Mellery; Montald; Mossa; Munch; Nestor; Osbert; Podkowinski; Preisler; Previati; Ranson; Redon; Rops; Samirailo; Samov; Schwabe; Segantini; Seon; Serov; Simberg; Somov; Spilliaert; Stuck; Toorop; Vallotton; Vedder; von Hoffman; Vrubel; Watts; Willumsen; Wojtkiewicz; Wyspianski GibsonM, R&J p425, & Monet R&J p450

(a} France: Edmond Aman-Jean: Charles Filiger; Gauguin; Moreau; Puvis de Chavannes:

(b) Belgium: Henry de Groux; Jean Delville; James Ensor; Emile Fabry

(c) Netherlands:

(d) Scandinavia:

(e) Germany:

(f) Austria: :

(g) Poland:

(h) Russia: Leon Bakst, Vassili Denissov, Pavel Filonov, Petrov-Vodkin, Mikhail Vrubel

(i) Italy:

(j) Spain: Adria Gual-Queralt;

(j) British Isles: Beardsley; Walter Crane:

(k) USA: Ryder

[Consolidate & revise]

TROUBADOUR & GENRE HISTORIQUE: (21)

Term: The concept of a Troubadour style dates back to at least 1880 & the term is authoritatively employed by art historians. Genre Historique became a new category for the award of medals at the French Salon in 1833 & covered history paintings that depicted relatively unimportant events & were spiced with realistic picturesque detail. They contrasted with traditional History Painting which celebrated heroic events & conveyed general ideas TurnerRtoI p353, M&M pp 20-1. [The combination of Troubadour & historical genre is intended to provide an appropriate title for an important category of paintings that were produced between the last years of the 18^th century & the latter part of the Victorian era. The Paris Exposition Universelle of 1867 marked the European triumph of Historical Genre M&M p7

Background:

(a) The Historical Novel: Although there had previously been novels set in the past Sir Walter Scott’s Waverley, 1815, initiated the historical novel. Here, & in the great series of novels which followed, an individual is placed in his or her historical context which Scott strove to make as realistic & historically accurate as possible. A feature of these novels is that the apparent hero is not an outstanding figure: context & historical forces are more important than character. Although the setting may be romantic the principal character is not a noble Romantic giant. Another important point is the way in which the drama, tragedy & conflict of the past are in time replaced by a calmer & more progressive era Lukacs pp 32-7. Scott was followed by numerous the writers of whom the most important was Harrison Ainsworth who from 1834 wrote historical romances featuring highwaymen & lawbreakers, & then turned in 1840 to historical novels that centred on particular localities & were peopled with characters actually connected with the place. For a time his work, with illustrations by Cruishank, was even more popular than that of Dickens Sutherland pp13-5. Over 800 British paintings with subjects from Scott’s novels were exhibited between between 1820 & 1870, & 150 historical novels with Civil War subjects were published from 1800 to 1914 M&M pp 20, 22;

(b)HistoricalWriting: Hitherto historians had concerned themselves with great men, remarkable happenings or with history as a pageant directed by God, but in 1824 Jules Michelet, who was a young French professor discovered & was inspired by the work of Vico who had written a century earlier. He seized upon the idea that history was an evolutionary process, driven by social forces & factors, in which mankind had engaged in self-improvement. None of these ideas was new but their combination was pivotal & led Michelet to write history of a new type. This he did in a great history of France that was published between 1833 & 1867 WilsonE pp 3-7, Chambers [Complete reading Wilson on Michelet]. In England the prevailing view of history was set out by Macaulay in the opening pages of his first volume of his History of Engalnd,1848. He would he wrote relate how the long struggle between King & Parliament was brought ot an end [with the Revolution of 1688], how this settlement was defended & a security of property & a liberty of discussion & individual action were combined in a manner never known before. Macaulay went on to mention the consequences which ranged from martial glory & an Asiatic empire to gigantic commercial growth & moral & intellectual improvement. It was to be a history of the British people, including Scotland, & not merely a history of government. Although he would not gloss over failures such as the loss of the American colonies & the state of Ireland, it was to be a history to excite thankfulness, & hope in the breasts of all patriots Macaulay pp 9-10. [What he did not mention but what was implicit was that this was a nation largely ruled by the aristocracy & gentry.] This was an age when history was written by men of letters who espoused causes, made moral judgements, & depicted the emergence of the nation. Green’s Short History of the England People was almost the last work to combine serious history & popular literature Strong1978 p74. British history was provided for a mass audience by Charles Knight in the Popular History of England, 1856-62. He created an entirely new class of reader one of whom described how he went without sugar in his tea in order to afford a publication by Knight OxCompEng pp538-9.

(c) Nationalism: When T&GH painters selected subjects they did so from a nationalistic standpoint. British painters produced scenes from British history except where they were, like Bonnington, working abroad & painting for a foreign clientele. However, there was an important group of French artists who painted subjects from British history including Delaroche, Vermay & A-E Fragonard. It has been argued that they selected subjects of a tragic nature which cast an unfavourable light on England, & argued that they were in reality painting France’s old enemy. There was however a period of Anglomania in France during the 1820s & 1830s, & French writers were greatly interested in the Civil War because they saw the execution of Charles & the rise of Cromwell as foreshadowing the Revolution & Napoleon T&S pp 108-23, Strong1978 p40. Be this as it may there is no doubt that T&GH painting was nationalistic or of the extent to which French artists contributed to Troubadour painting in Great Britain. The nationalism was however of a muted type because France & Great Britain were long established nation states, as opposed to other counties which had come into existence more recently or were struggling to free themselves from what was regarded as foreign rule. Artists from these nations are dealt with in the Movement entitled Romantic Nationalism.

Although British nationalism was of a temperate variety it was crucially important. It derived in large measure from how British history was seen by a public that was saturated with history. The nation was thereby provided with a collective genealogy & a shared belief in a freedom-loving people who had been spared the bloody revolutions that had engulfed the Continent. [The shared belief in British exceptionalism was a stabilising & unifying force at a time when the nation was slowly moving towards democracy but was still ruled by a House of Lords almost entirely composed of landed aristocrats & a Commons where in 1886 nearly half the MPs had aristocratic & landed backgrounds & over 30% had active & substantial business interests Strong1978 pp 32-3, Searle p129. [The contrast between Britain & France is striking. Throughout the 19^th century & beyond the partisans of the Revolution & the contras battled in the history books, & [although there was still a French aristocracy it had in 1830 withdrawn from public life Cobban2 p92. The French lacked the advantage of having Trollope’s Duke of St Bungay who was happy to to serve in public office but almost equally pleased to be out of power looking after his estates & lingering in Italy Trollope2 p302. [Compared with Britain France was an unhappy land beset by nostalgia for its greatness under Louis XIV, for Napoleon, & for the Bourbons. It was afflicted by clericalism, anti-clericalism & anti-Semitism; & it was then humiliated by defeat at the hands of Prussia.]

Development: The vogue for British historical scenes began around 1730. To begin with they dealt with grand & heroic incidents & were the work of minor artists such as William Kent & Robert Pine. However, by the latter part of the century, a bevy of major artists, including Benjamin West, Gavin Hamilton & Henry Fuseli, were painting British historical scenes. Their production was greatly encouraged by Robert Boyer who established a History Gallery in Pall Mall & between & between 1793 & 1806 commissioned more than a hundred works. By then History Paintings in the strict sense -those displaying heroism & self-sacrifice- had been joined by story paintings in depictions of the Princes in the Tower & the life & death of Mary Queen of Scots Strong1978 pp 13-22.

In France there was a vogue for medieval literature around 1780 initiated by Louis-Elizabeth de la Vogue & Comte de Tressan. Pretty chivalry scenes -sentimental, anecdotal & in elegant costume- were then devised as book illustrations TurnerRtoI p353. Following the Revolution due partly to nostalgia & nationalism there was a new interest in paintings of French history T&S p80. The heroisation of women provided a relief from masculine warfare, ancient & modern, with their depiction being inspired by historical novels & fictionalised biographies aimed at & featuring women TurnerRtoI p354. The Revolution interrupted Troubadour painting but the Troubadour painters Ingres, Revoil etc then worked in a highly finished archaising style derived from David. The next generation –Delacroix, Horace Vernet, etc- adopted a more flamboyant & painterly manner & other artists –Scheffer. A-E Fragonard etc suited their style to their subject matter. Bonnington & Delacroix added an unprecedented emotional intensity to their work T&S pp 80, 97.

A feature of T&GH paintings, & indeed of the era, was that many were not produced by specialists. Ingres & Bonnington, for example, produced the work that had strikingly different subject matter. Until about 1870 almost every notable Victorian artist in Britain painted anecdotal history paintings Rosenblum1990 pp 9-13, Brigstocke, Treuherz1993 pp 24, 26. However, from the 1860s there was a group of young British artists who specialised in T&GH paintings known as the St John’s Wood Clique which was where they mostly lived See St John’s Wood Clique in Section 8.

Characteristics: [T&GH painting does not feature the noble & heroic events in history. Even at their most serious they are not intended to do more than arouse feelings of sorrow, melancholy & nostalgia. If they are historical or literary scenes they seldom depict a climax or great event but one of a secondary nature. Hence they are not in general History Painting of the classic type although paintings of Mary Queen of Scots & Lady Jane Grey sometimes rise to real tragedy]. The low emotional temperature is reinforced, instead of enhanced, by the frequent use of stock facial & bodily stereotypes to indicate emotion. For instance faces look up to heaven, hands are placed on brows & gestures are exaggerated T&S pp 59, 92, 118, 127, 141, 163, 201, 205; M&M pp 81, Strong1978 pp 41, 118, 120, 132-3, Rosenblum1990 pp 104-5. [Very often the events & people portrayed do not rest on sound historical evidence & are frequently merely imaginative paintings of what could have happened to real people or what one might in certain historical periods plausibly imagine took place. They therefore qualify as genre, the painting of ordinary events, even when they portray uncommon people or abnormal periods.] The plausibility of the scene is usually reinforced by the inclusion of a considerable detail [& period features which have been carefully researched]. The colouring of T&GH paintings tends to be rich with a particular emphasis on red & glowing brown. Tonal contrasts are much in evidence Strong1978 Pl III, IV, VI-XII, T&S pp 43, 47-8, 63, 66, 85, 86, 91-2, 96, etc. [The colouring & chiaroscuro contributes to the drama: a vital element in this type of work in which the painter is frequently trying to arouse the sympathy of the viewer for those who are meeting, or will meet, tragic ends.]

Patronage: One of the most important early patrons was Hortense de Beauharnais, 1783-1837, the daughter of Empress Josephine. The Chateau of Arenenberg on Lake Constance contains her collection T&S p20.. [More needs to be said}

Painters:
Great Britain: Sir William Allen; Ford Madox Brown (briefly); Edgar Bundy; William Shakespeare Burton; Calderon; George Cattermole; Charles West Cope;, Ernest Crofts; Augustus Egg; Thomas Faed; Frith; Frederick Goodall; Robert Herdman; J. E. Hodgson; John Calcott Horsley; Landseer; Charles Robert Leslie, Charles Robert & George; Maclise; Henry Stacy Marks; Millais; William Mulready; John Pettie; Henry O’Neill; Val Princep; Joseph Severn; Marcus Stone; G. A. Storey; Edward Ward; Fred Walker; Edward Matthew Ward; Watts; Thomas Webster; Wynfield; William Frederick Yeames Treuherz1993 Ch1, TurnerRtoI p324, M&M, Strong pp 39, 59, 65, 71, 90, 93, 94-5,115, 117, 118, 125, 127, 129, 132-5, 139, 141-5, 147-9, 151, Pls XI, XII ]

France: Auzou; Bergeret; Blondel; Bonnington; Delaroche; Delacroix; Eugene Deveria; Ducis; Alexandre-Evariste Fragonard; Granet; Ingres; Gros; Guerin; Jacquand; Jean-Antoine Laurent; Lecomte; Mallet; Marillier; Jean-Michel Moreau; Revoil; Taunay; Vafflard TurnerRtoI pp 353-6 if listed inTurnerDtoI [Check to see thery are all French]